Résumés
Abstract
In 1569, Gerard de Jode published in Antwerp Maarten van Heemskerck’s Old Testament print series about Dinah, daughter of Jacob. In these images, Heemskerck reinterprets the Old Testament narrative from a deeply misogynistic standpoint, disputing the Biblical claim that Shechem raped Dinah. This article traces the sporadic representations of the episode in prints and paintings and examines visual strategies that emphasize male vulnerability over the suffering of the female victim. Heemskerck’s artistic choices are then evaluated in the context of certain exegetical differences between Martin Luther and John Calvin.
Keywords:
- Heemskerck,
- Bernard Salomon,
- Bugiardini,
- Dinah,
- rape,
- Calvin,
- Luther,
- Dutch Revolt
Résumé
En 1569, Gerard de Jode publie à Anvers une série d’estampes de Maarten van Heemskerck représentant Dina, la fille de Jacob. Dans ces gravures, Heemskerck réinterprète ce récit de l’Ancien Testament d’un point de vue profondément misogyne, contestant l’affirmation biblique selon laquelle Sichem aurait violé Dina. Le présent article retrace les représentations sporadiques de cet épisode dans la gravure et la peinture et examine les dispositifs visuels soulignant la vulnérabilité masculine plutôt que la souffrance de la victime féminine. Les choix artistiques de Heemskerck y sont ensuite étudiés à la lumière de certaines divergences exégétiques entre Martin Luther et Jean Calvin.
Mots-clés :
- Heemskerck,
- Bernard Salomon,
- Bugiardini,
- Dinah,
- Viol,
- Calvin,
- Luther,
- Révolte hollandaise
Parties annexes
Bibliography
- Arnade, Peter. Beggars, Iconoclasts, and Civic Patriots: The Political Culture of the Dutch Revolt. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008.
- Arnade, Peter. Realms of Ritual: Burgundian Ceremony and Civic Life in Late Medieval Ghent. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996.
- Bartsch, Tatjana. Maarten van Heemskerck: Römische Studien zwischen Sachlichkeit und Imagination. Munich: Hirmer, 2019.
- Biblia sacrosancta Testamenti Veteris et Novi. Zurich: Christoph Froschauer, 1543.
- Bisschop, Valentinius. Den lof der suyverheydt. Antwerp: Hieronymus Vedussen, 1626.
- Bokody, Péter. The Imagery and Politics of Sexual Violence in Early Renaissance Italy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009122528.
- Boon, Karel G. “Patientia dans les gravures de la Réforme aux Pays-Bas.” Revue de l’art 56, no. 2 (1982): 7–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.3917/rda.056.0007.
- Bourke, Joanna. Disgrace: Global Reflections on Sexual Violence. London: Reaktion Books, 2022.
- Bowd, Stephen D. Renaissance Mass Murder: Civilians and Soldiers during the Italian Wars. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198832614.001.0001.
- Brisman, Shira. “Maerten van Heemskerck’s Momus and the Moment of Critique.” RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 73–74 (Spring–Autumn 2020): 23–40. https://doi.org/10.1086/710057.
- Calvin, John. Commentaries on the First Book of Moses Called Genesis. Translated by John King. Vol. 2. Michigan: W. B. Eerdmans, 1948.
- Calvin, John. In primum Libru[m] Mosis, qui Genesis vulgo dicitur. Geneva: Stephanus, 1554.
- Cameron, Euan. The European Reformation. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
- Cats, Jacob. Alle de wercken van den Heere Jacob Cats. 2 vols. Amsterdam, 1712.
- Caviness, Madeline H. Visualizing Women in the Middle Ages: Sight, Spectacle and Scopic Economy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.
- DiFuria, Arthur J. “Maerten van Heemskerck’s Heliodorus Driven from the Temple: Translatio and the Interrogative Print.” In Imago Exegetica: Visual Images as Exegetical Instruments, 1400–1700, edited by Walter S. Melion, James Clifton, and Michel Weemans, 711–36. Leiden: Brill, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004262010_025.
- Duke, Alastair. “The Netherlands.” In The Early Reformation in Europe, edited by Andrew Pettegree, 142–65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511622250.008.
- Even, Yael. “On the Art and Life of Collective Sexual Violence in Renaissance Italy.” Source: Notes in the History of Art 23, no. 1 (Summer 2004): 7–14. https://doi.org/10.1086/sou.23.4.23207989.
- Fischart, Johann, and Tobias Stimmer. Neue Künstliche Figuren Biblischer Historien. Basel: Thomas Gwarin, 1576.
- Fischer, Chris, ed. Disegni di Fra Bartolommeo e della sua Scuola. Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 1986.
- Fischer, Chris. Fra Bartolommeo et son atelier: Dessins et peintures des collections françaises. Paris: Réunion des musées nationaux, 1994.
- Folin, Marco, and Monica Preti. “Les désastres du peuple juif de Maarten van Heemskerck: Une œuvre polysémique.” In Les villes détruites de Maarten van Heemskerck: Images de ruines et conflits religieux dans les Pays-Bas au XVIe siècle, edited by Marco Folin and Monica Preti, 20–84. Paris: INHA, 2015.
- Glossa ordinaria. In Patrologia Latina, edited by Jacques Paul Migne. Vols. 113–14. Paris: Garnier, 1879.
- Gordon, Bruce. “Remembering Jerome and Forgetting Zwingli: The Zurich Latin Bible of 1543 and the Establishment of Heinrich Bullinger’s Church.” Zwingliana 41, no. 1 (2014): 1–33. https://doi.org/10.69871/67g3x221.
- Gottfried, Johann Ludwig, and Matthäus Merian. Icones Biblicae. Strasbourg: Matthäus Merian, 1630.
- Groentjes, Merel. “Clades Judaeae Gentis: Patterns of Destruction.” In Imago Exegetica: Visual Images as Exegetical Instruments, 1400–1700, edited by Walter S. Melion, James Clifton, and Michel Weemans, 507–44. Leiden: Brill, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004262010_018.
- Grotius, Hugo. Annals of the War in the Low Countries. Edited and translated by Jan Waszink. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2023. https://doi.org/10.11116/9789461664853.
- Grotius, Hugo. De Jure Belli et Pacis. Edited by William Whewell. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1884.
- Grotius, Hugo. On the Law of War and Peace. Edited by Stephen C. Neff. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139031233.
- Hadrianus Junius. Batavia. Dordrecht, 1652. First published 1588.
- Haggenmacher, Peter. Grotius et la doctrine de la guerre juste. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1983.
- Hale, John R. Artists and Warfare in the Renaissance. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.
- Horst, Daniel R. “Cartoons and Cruelties: Political Prints from the Critical First Decades of the Dutch Revolt.” In Paper Knives, Paper Crowns: Political Prints in the Dutch Republic, edited by Maureen Warren, 65–83. Champaign, IL: Krannart Art Museum, 2022.
- Horst, Daniel R. De Opstand in zwart-wit: De propagandaprenten uit de Nederlandse Opstand (1566–1584). Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 2003.
- Israel, Jonathan. The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806. Oxford: Clarendon, 1995. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198730729.001.0001.
- Lowden, John. The Making of the Bibles Moralisées. 2 vols. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000.
- Luijten, Ger, ed. Maarten van Heemskerck. Compiled by Ilja M. Veldman. 2 vols. Roosendaal: Koninklijke van Poll, 1993.
- Luther, Martin. Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe. Vol. 44. Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1915.
- MacKinnon, Catharine A. “Turning Rape into Pornography: Postmodern Genocide.” In Mass Rape: The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina, edited by Alexandra Stiglmayer, 73–81. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994.
- Marnef, Guido. “The Changing Face of Calvinism in Antwerp, 1555–1585.” In Calvinism in Europe, 1540–1620, edited by Andrew Pettegree, Alastair C. Duke, and Gillian Lewis, 143–59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
- Melion, Walter S. “Bible Illustrations in the Sixteenth-Century Low Countries.” In Scripture for the Eyes: Bible Illustration in Netherlandish Prints of the Sixteenth Century, edited by James Clifton and Walter S. Melion, 14–106. New York: Museum of Biblical Art, 2009.
- Messling, Guido. “An Unknown Woodcut Design by Tobias Stimmer.” Master Drawings 48, no. 2 (Summer 2010): 167–72. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27811100.
- Meyer, Mati. “The Levite’s Concubine: Imaging the Marginal Woman in Byzantine Society.” Studies in Iconography 27 (2006): 45–76. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23923693.
- Mills, Robert. Seeing Sodomy in the Middle Ages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226169262.001.0001.
- Mills, Robert. Suspended Animation: Pain, Pleasure and Punishment in Medieval Culture. London: Reaktion Books, 2005.
- Muller, Frank. Heinrich Vogtherr l’Ancien: Un artiste entre Renaissance et Réforme. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1997.
- Musculus, Wolfgang. In Mosis Genesim plenissimi commentarii. Basel: Johann Herwagen, 1554.
- Nevola, Fabrizio. “Review Essay: Street Life in Early Modern Europe.” Renaissance Quarterly 66, no. 4 (Winter 2013): 1332–45. https://doi.org/10.1086/675094.
- Pagnotta, Laura. Giuliano Bugiardini. Turin: Allemandi, 1987.
- Perlove, Shelley. “Narrative, Ornament, and Politics in Maerten van Heemskerck’s Story of Esther (1564).” In The Primacy of the Image in Northern European Art, 1400–1700, edited by Debra Taylor Cashion, Henry Luttikhuizen, and Ashley D. West, 433–46. Leiden: Brill, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004354128_033.
- Pipkin, Amanda C. Rape in the Republic, 1609–1725: Formulating Dutch Identity. Leiden: Brill, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004256668.
- Pollmann, Judith. Catholic Identity and the Revolt of the Netherlands, 1520–1635. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199609918.001.0001.
- Preibisz, Leon. Martin van Heemskerck: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Romanismus in der niederländischen Malerei des XVI Jahrhunderts. Leipzig: Klinkhardt und Biermann, 1911.
- Preti, Monica. “La polysémie des ruines: Maarten van Heemskerck et les ‘Clades Judaeae Gentis’ (1569).” In Villes en ruine: Images, mémoires, métamorphoses, edited by Monica Preti and Salvatore Settis, 210–33. Paris: Hazan, 2015.
- Rashkow, Ilona N. “Hebrew Bible Translation and the Fear of Judaization.” Sixteenth Century Journal 21, no. 2 (Summer 1990): 217–33. https://doi.org/10.2307/2541051.
- Rosier, Bart A. The Bible in Print: Netherlandish Bible Illustration in the Sixteenth Century. Translated by Chris F. Weterings. Leiden: Foleor, 1997.
- Rubin, Patricia Lee. Seen from Behind: Perspectives on the Male Body and Renaissance Art. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018.
- Salomon, Bernard. Illustrations pour l’Ancien Testament. Geneva: Éditions de l’Institut d’histoire de l’art du Moyen Âge, 1969.
- Schmidt, Philipp. Die Illustration der Lutherbibel, 1522–1700: Ein Stück abendländische Kultur- und Kirchengeschichte mit Verzeichnissen der Bibeln, Bilder und Künstler. Basel: F. Reinhardt, 1962.
- Schroeder, Joy A. Dinah’s Lament: The Biblical Legacy of Sexual Violence in Christian Interpretation. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007.
- Sharratt, Peter. Bernard Salomon: Illustrateur lyonnais. Geneva: Droz, 2005.
- Spohnholz, Jess, and Mirjam G. K. van Veen. “The Disputed Origins of Dutch Calvinism: Religious Refugees in the Historiography of the Dutch Reformation.” Church History 86, no. 2 (June 2017): 398–426. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0009640717000567.
- Steinberg, Leo. “The Sexuality of Christ in Renaissance Art and in Modern Oblivion.” October 25 (Summer 1983): 1–222. https://www.jstor.org/stable/778637.
- Stimmer, Tobias. Novae Sacrorum Bibliorum figurae. Strasbourg: Bernhard Jobin, 1590.
- Swetschinski, Daniel M. “From the Middle Ages to the Golden Age, 1516–1621.” In The History of the Jews in the Netherlands, edited by J. C. H. Blom, R. G. Fuks-Mansfeld, and Ivo Schöffer, 44–84. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2001.
- Swetschinski, Daniel M. “Settlement, Toleration and Association until 1639.” In Reappraising the History of the Jews in the Netherlands, edited by Hans Blom, David J. Wertheim, and Hetty Berg, translated by David McKay, 38–75. London: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2021. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv20zbkq2.10.
- Tanis, James, and Daniel Horst. Images of Discord: A Graphic Interpretation of the Opening Decades of the Eighty Years’ War. Bryn Mawr, PA: Bryn Mawr College Library, 1993.
- Tanner, Paul, ed. Abel Stimmer and Tobias Stimmer. Compiled by Dieter Beaujean. 4 vols. Ouderkerk aan den IJssel: Sound & Vision Publishers, 2014.
- Thompson, John L. Writing the Wrongs: Women of the Old Testament among Biblical Commentators from Philo through the Reformation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
- Turi, Patrizio. “Un disegno settecentesco del ‘Ratto di Dina’ di Fra Bartolomeo.” Memorie Domenicane 25, no. 1 (1994): 259–91.
- Van der Coelen, Peter, ed. The De Jode Dynasty. Compiled by Marjolein Leesberg. Vol. 1. Ouderkerk aan den IJssel: Sound & Vision Publishers, 2018.
- Van der Stock, Jan. Printing Images in Antwerp: The Introduction of Printmaking in a City, Fifteenth Century to 1585. Translated by Beverly Jackson. Rotterdam: Sound & Vision Interactive, 1998.
- Van Mander, Karel. The Lives of the Illustrious Netherlandish and German Painters. Edited and translated by Hessel Miedema. 6 vols. Doornspijk: Davaco, 1994–99.
- Van Nierop, Henk. “Alva’s Throne: Making Sense of the Revolt of the Netherlands.” In The Origins and Development of the Dutch Revolt, edited by Graham Darby, 29–47. London: Routledge: 2001. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203423974.
- Vasari, Giorgio. Le vite de’ piu eccellenti pittori, scultori, et architettori. Florence, 1568.
- Veldman, Ilja M. “Dutch Political Prints: Historiography in a Nutshell.” In Paper Knives, Paper Crowns: Political Prints in the Dutch Republic, edited by Maureen Warren, 15–21. Champaign, IL: Krannart Art Museum, 2022.
- Veldman, Ilja M. Images for the Eye and Soul: Function and Meaning in Netherlandish Prints (1450–1650). Leiden: Primavera Pers, 2006.
- Veldman, Ilja M. “L’illustration de la Bible dans l’Europe du Nord au XVIe siècle.” In Les villes détruites de Maarten van Heemskerck: Images de ruines et conflits religieux dans les Pays-Bas au XVIe siècle, edited by Marco Folin and Monica Preti, 111–15. Paris: INHA, 2015.
- Veldman, Ilja M. Maarten van Heemskerck and Dutch Humanism in the Sixteenth Century. Translated by Michael Hoyle. Maarssen: Gary Schwartz, 1977.
- Veldman, Ilja M., and H. J. de Jonge. “The Sons of Jacob: The Twelve Patriarchs in Sixteenth-Century Netherlandish Prints and Popular Literature.” Simiolus 15, no. 3/4 (1985): 176–96. https://doi.org/10.2307/3780692.
- Voges, Ramon. Das Auge der Geschichte: Der Aufstand der Niederlande und die Französischen Religionskriege im Spiegel der Bildberichte Franz Hogenbergs (ca. 1560–1610). Leiden: Brill, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004392663.
- Voges, Ramon. “Les Massacres et troubles survenus aux Pays-Bas de Frans Hogenberg.” In Les villes détruites de Maarten van Heemskerck: Images de ruines et conflits religieux dans les Pays-Bas au XVIe siècle, edited by Marco Folin and Monica Preti, 108–10. Paris: INHA, 2015.
- Wolfthal, Diane. “‘A Hue and a Cry’: Medieval Rape Imagery and Its Transformation.” Art Bulletin 75, no. 1 (March 1993): 39–64. https://doi.org/10.2307/3045931.
- Wolfthal, Diane. Images of Rape: The “Heroic” Tradition and Its Alternatives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
- Wolfthal, Diane. In and Out of the Marital Bed: Seeing Sex in Renaissance Europe. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010.
- Wüthrich, Lucas Heinrich. Das Druckgraphische Werk von Matthaeus Merian d. Ae. Vol. 3. Basel: Bärenreiter, 1993.
- Wüthrich, Lucas Heinrich. Matthaeus Merian d.Ä: Eine Biographie. Hamburg: Hoffmann und Campe, 2007.
- Zwingli, Huldreich. Sämtliche Werke. Vol. 13. Zurich: Berichthaus, 1963.