Abstracts
Abstract
This study investigates the impact of nonverbal information on the cognitive effort of translators in audiovisual translation (AVT), specifically in subtitling. While the importance of nonverbal elements in AVT is widely recognised, understanding how the amount of nonverbal information directly affects translators’ cognitive effort remains a challenge. To address this, methods from Translation Process Research (TPR) are employed, including eye-tracking, keystroke-logging and subjective reflection. Based on the multimodal transcription method, texts are differentiated according to their level of nonverbal information by analysing key features such as kinesics, camera content and acoustic diegesis. Through the experiment, the cognitive processes and perceived effort of translators are examined throughout the subtitle translation process, including video watching. Results show that an increase in the amount of nonverbal information does not lead to increased cognitive effort among subtitle translators, as evidenced by reduced fixations, keystroke operations and pauses. The perceived effort by translators aligns with this finding. Additionally, the distribution of attention exhibits a consistent pattern, with only minor differences due to varying levels of nonverbal information. Thus, this study highlights the potential to examine the role of nonverbal information in shaping translators’ cognitive processes and confirms the viability of incorporating TPR methods into AVT process research.
Keywords:
- nonverbal information,
- subtitling,
- audiovisual translation,
- eye-tracking,
- process studies
Résumé
Cette étude examine l’impact des informations non verbales sur l’effort cognitif des traducteurs dans la traduction audiovisuelle (TAV), en particulier dans le sous-titrage. Bien que l’importance des éléments non verbaux dans la TAV soit largement reconnue, on peine encore à comprendre dans quelle mesure la quantité d’informations non verbales affecte directement l’effort cognitif des traducteurs. Pour y remédier, on applique ici les méthodes de la Recherche sur le Processus de Traduction (RPT) incluant le suivi oculaire, l’enregistrement des frappes au clavier et la réflexion subjective. Suivant la méthode de transcription multimodale, on classe les textes selon leur niveau d’informations non verbales en analysant des caractéristiques clés telles que la kinésie, le contenu vidéo et la diégèse acoustique. À travers l’expérience, on analyse les processus cognitifs et l’effort perçu par les traducteurs tout au long du processus de traduction des sous-titres, y compris le visionnage de vidéos. Les résultats montrent que l’augmentation de la quantité d’information non verbale n’entraîne pas une augmentation de l’effort cognitif chez les traducteurs de sous-titres (les indicateurs étant : les fixations réduites, les frappes au clavier et les pauses). L’effort perçu par les traducteurs correspond à cette constatation. De plus, on observe une tendance constante dans la répartition de l’attention, avec seulement de légères différences dues aux niveaux variables d’information non verbales. Ainsi, cette étude met en évidence l’importance d’examiner le rôle des informations non verbales dans la configuration des processus cognitifs des traducteurs et confirme la pertinence d’intégrer la méthodologie RPT dans l’étude du processus de TAV.
Mots-clés :
- information non verbale,
- sous-titrage,
- traduction audiovisuelle,
- suivi oculaire,
- études de processus
Resumen
Este estudio investiga el impacto de la información no verbal en el esfuerzo cognitivo de los traductores en la traducción audiovisual (TAV), específicamente en el subtitulado. Si bien se reconoce ampliamente la importancia de los elementos no verbales en la TAV, entender cómo la cantidad de información no verbal afecta directamente el esfuerzo cognitivo de los traductores sigue siendo un desafío. Para abordar esto, se emplean métodos de Investigación del Proceso de Traducción (IPT), que incluyen el seguimiento ocular, el registro de pulsaciones de teclas y la reflexión subjetiva. Basándose en el método de transcripción multimodal, los textos se diferencian según su nivel de información no verbal analizando características clave como la cinética, el contenido de la cámara y la diégesis acústica. A través del experimento, se examinan los procesos cognitivos y el esfuerzo percibido de los traductores durante todo el proceso de traducción de los subtítulos, incluida la visualización de videos. Los resultados muestran que un aumento en la cantidad de información no verbal no conduce a un mayor esfuerzo cognitivo entre los traductores de subtítulos, como lo demuestran las reducciones en las fijaciones, las operaciones de pulsación de teclas y las pausas. El esfuerzo percibido por los traductores se alinea con este hallazgo. Además, la distribución de la atención exhibe un patrón consistente, con solo pequeñas diferencias debido a los diferentes niveles de información no verbal. Por lo tanto, este estudio destaca el potencial de examinar el papel de la información no verbal en la configuración de los procesos cognitivos de los traductores y confirma la viabilidad de incorporar métodos IPT en la investigación del proceso de TAV.
Palabras clave:
- información no verbal,
- subtitulación,
- traducción audiovisual,
- seguimiento ocular,
- estudios de proceso
Appendices
Bibliography
- Alves, Fabio and Jakobsen, Arnt Lykke (2021): The Routledge handbook of translation and cognition. London: Routledge.
- Alves, Fabio, Pagano, Adriana, Neumann, Stella, Steiner, Erich and Hansen-Schirra, Silvia (2010): Translation units and grammatical shifts: Towards an integration of product-and process-based translation research. In: Gregory M. Shreve and Erik Angelone, eds. Translation and cognition. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 109-142.
- Anderson, John (2015): Cognitive psychology and its implications. New York: Worth.
- Antonini, Rachele, Cirillo, Letizia, Rossato, Linda and Torresi, Ira (2017): Non-professional interpreting and translation. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
- Baadte, Christiane and Meinhardt-Injac, Bozana (2019): The picture superiority effect in associative memory: A developmental study. British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 37(3): 382-395.
- Baddeley, Alan and Hitch, Graham (1974): Working memory. In: Gordon H. Bower, ed. The psychology of learning and motivation. New York: Elsevier, 47-89.
- Baker, Mona (2018): In other words: a coursebook on translation. London: Routledge.
- Baldry, Anthony and Thibault, Paul (2006): Multimodal transcription and text analysis: a multimedia toolkit and coursebook with associated on-line course. London: Equinox.
- Baumgarten, Nicole (2008): Yeah , that’s it!: Verbal reference to visual information in film texts and film translations. Meta. 53(1): 6-25.
- Broadbent, D. E. (1958): Perception and communication. Oxford: Pergamon.
- Butterworth, Brian (1980): Evidences from pauses in speech. In: Brian Butterworth, ed. Language production: Speech and talk. London: Academic Press, 155-176.
- Caffrey, Colm (2008): Viewer perception of visual nonverbal cues in subtitled TV Anime 1. European Journal of English Studies. 12(2): 163-178.
- Caffrey, Colm (2012): Using an eye–tracking tool to measure the effects of experimental subtitling procedures on viewer perception of subtitled AV content. In: Elisa Perego, ed. Eye tracking in audiovisual translation. Roma: Aracne, 223-258.
- Carl, Michael, Bangalore, Srinivas and Schaeffer, Moritz (2016): New directions in empirical translation process research: exploring the CRITT TPR-DB. Cham: Springer.
- Chaume, Frederic (1997): Translating non-verbal information in dubbing. In: Fernando Poyatos, ed. Nonverbal communication and translation: New perspectives and challenges in literature, interpretation and the media. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 315-342.
- Chaume, Frederic (2002): Models of research in audiovisual translation. Babel. 48(1): 1-13.
- Čulo, Oliver, Gutermuth, Silke, Hansen-Schirra, Silvia and Nitzke, Jean (2014): The influence of post-editing on translation strategies. In: Sharon O’Brien, Laura Winther Balling, Michael Carl, Michel Simard and Lucia Specia, eds. Post-editing of machine translation: Processes and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 200-218.
- Delabastita, Dirk (1989): Translation and mass-communication: film and T.V. translation as evidence of cultural dynamics. Babel. 35(4): 193-218.
- Diao, Yali and Sweller, John (2007): Redundancy in foreign language reading comprehension instruction: Concurrent written and spoken presentations. Learning and Instruction. 17(1): 78-88.
- Díaz-Cintas, Jorge and Remael, Aline (2014): Audiovisual translation: subtitling. London: Routledge.
- Dragsted, Barbara (2012): Indicators of difficulty in translation: Correlating product and process data. Across Languages and Cultures. 13(1): 81-98.
- Gambier, Yves (2006): Multimodality and audiovisual translation. In: Mary Carroll, Heidrun Gerzymisch-Arbogast, and Sandra Nauert, eds. Proceedings of the Marie Curie Euroconferences MuTra: Audiovisual translation scenarios. (MuTra 2006, Copenhagen, 1-5 May 2006). Saarland: Advanced Translation Research Centre, 91-98.
- Garza, Thomas (1991): Evaluating the use of captioned video materials in advanced foreign language learning. Foreign Language Annals. 24(3): 239-258.
- Garza, Thomas (1996): The message is the medium: using video materials to facilitate foreign language performance. Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education. 2(2): 1-20.
- Gile, Daniel and Lei, Victoria (2021): Translation, effort and cognition. In: Fabio Alves and Arnt Lykke Jakobsen, eds. The Routledge handbook of translation and cognition. London: Routledge, 263-278.
- Gottlieb, Henrik (2005): Multidimensional translation: semantics turned semiotics. In: Heidrun Gerzymisch-Arbogast and Sandra Nauert, eds. Proceedings of the Marie Curie EuroConferences MuTra: Challenges of multidimensional translation. (MuTra 2005, Saarbrücken, 2-6 May 2005). Saarbrücken: MuTra, 33-61.
- Guillot, Marie-Noëlle (2018): Subtitling on the cusp of its futures. In: Luis Pérez-González, ed. The Routledge handbook of audiovisual translation. London: Routledge, 31-47.
- Halliday, M. A. K. and Hasan, Ruqaiya (1989): Language, context and text: Aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Hansen, Gyde (2013): The translation process as object of research. In: Carmen Millán and Francesca Bartrina, eds. The Routledge handbook of Translation Studies. London & New York: Routledge, 88-101.
- Hockley, William and Bancroft, Tyler (2011): Extensions of the picture superiority effect in associative recognition. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 65(4): 236-244.
- Huang, Jie and Wang, Jianhua (2022): Post-editing machine translated subtitles: examining the effects of non-verbal input on student translators’ effort. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice. 31(4): 620-640.
- Hussain, Alaa Eddin and Khuddro, Ahmad (2016): Practical functional approach to quality assessment in subtitling: Pocahontas II – Case study. Advances in Language and Literary Studies. 7(3): 38-56.
- Hvelplund, Kristian Tangsgaard (2011): Allocation of cognitive resources in translation. An eye-tracking and key-logging study. Doctoral thesis. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School.
- Hvelplund, Kristian Tangsgaard (2014): Eye tracking and the translation process: reflections on the analysis and interpretation of eye-tracking data. In: Ricardo Muñoz Martin, ed. MonTI Special Issue 1. Minding translation / Con la traducción en mente. Alicante: Publicaciones de la universided de Alicante, 201-223.
- Hvelplund, Kristian Tangsgaard (2017): Eye tracking and the process of dubbing translation. In: Jorge Diaz Cintas and Kristijan Nikolic, eds. Fast-forwarding with audiovisual translation. Bristol: Multilingual matters, 110-124.
- Hvelplund, Kristian Tangsgaard (2019): Digital resources in the translation process–attention, cognitive effort and processing flow. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice. 27(4): 510-524.
- Immonen, Sini and Mäkisalo, Jukka (2010): Pauses reflecting the processing of syntactic units in monolingual text production and translation. Journal of Language and Communication in Business. 44(1): 45-62.
- Jakobsen, Arnt Lykke (2017): Translation process research. In: John W. Schwieter and Aline Ferreira, eds. The handbook of translation and cognition. Malden: Wiley Blackwell, 20-49.
- Jensen, Kristian (2011): Distribution of attention between source text and target text during translation. In: Sharon O’Brien, ed. Cognitive explorations of translation. London: Continuum, 215-236.
- Job, Remo, Rumiati, Rino and Lotto, Lorella (1992): The picture superiority effect in categorization: Visual or semantic? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 18(5): 1019-1028.
- Kaindl, Klaus (2004): Multimodality in the translation of humour in comics. In: Eija Ventola, Cassily Charles, and Martin Kaltenbacher, eds. Perspectives on multimodality. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 173-192.
- Kalyuga, Slava, Chandler, Paul and Sweller, John (1999): Managing split-attention and redundancy in multimedia instruction. Applied Cognitive Psychology. 13(4): 351-371.
- Ketola, Anne (2016): Towards a multimodally oriented theory of translation: A cognitive framework for the translation of illustrated technical texts. Translation Studies. 9(1): 67-81.
- Koglin, Arlene (2015): An empirical investigation of cognitive effort required to post-edit machine translated metaphors compared to the translation of metaphors. Translation and Interpreting. 7(1): 126-141.
- Kress, Gunther and van Leeuwen, Theo (1996): Reading images: the grammar of visual design. London: Routledge.
- Kress, Gunther and van Leeuwen, Theo (2001): Multimodal discourse: the modes and media of contemporary communication. London: Arnold.
- Kruger, Jan-Louis (2013): Subtitles in the classroom: Balancing the benefits of dual coding with the cost of increased cognitive load. Journal for Language Teaching. 47(1): 55-71.
- Kruger, Jan-Louis (2019): Eye tracking in audiovisual translation research. In: Luis Pérez-González, ed. The Routledge handbook of audiovisual translation. London & New York: Routledge, 350-366.
- Kruger, Jan-Louis, Szarkowska, Agnieszka and Krejtz, Izabela (2015): Subtitles on the movie image-an overview of eye tracking studies. Refractory: A Journal of Entertainment Media. 25(1): 1-14.
- Lacruz, Isabel and Shreve, Gregory M. (2014): Pauses and cognitive effort in post-editing. In: Sharon O’Brien, Laura Winther Balling, Michael Carl, Michel Simard, and Lucia Specia, eds. Post-editing of Machine Translation: Processes and applications. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 246-273.
- Lang, Annie (1995): Defining audio/video redundancy from a limited-capacity information processing perspective. Communication Research. 22(1): 86-115.
- Markham, Paul (1999): Captioned videotapes and second-language listening word recognition. Foreign Language Annals. 32(3): 321-328.
- Massey, Gary and Jud, Peter (2020): Translation process research in audiovisual translation. In: Łukasz Bogucki and Mikołaj Deckert, eds. The Palgrave handbook of audiovisual translation and media accessibility. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 359-379.
- Mayer, Richard E., Heiser, Julie and Lonn, Steve (2001): Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology. 93(1): 187-198.
- McBride, Dawn M. and Dosher, Barbara Anne (2002): A comparison of conscious and unconscious memory processes for picture and word stimuli: A process dissociation analysis. Consciousness and Cognition. 11(3): 423-460.
- Millán-Varela, Carmen (2004): Exploring advertising in a global context: Food for thought. The Translator. 10(2): 245-267.
- Ngamsa, John (2013): Patterns of intersemiotic cohesion in the moving image text. New Media and Mass Communication. 9: 11-17.
- Oittinen, Riitta, Ketola, Anne and Garavini, Melissa (2018): Translating picturebooks. New York: Routledge.
- Olsen, Anneli (2012): The Tobii I-VT Fixation Filter: Algorithm description. Tobii White Paper. Consulted on 22 May 2025, http://www.vinis.co.kr/ivt_filter.pdf.
- Orrego-Carmona, David, Dutka, Łukasz and Szarkowska, Agnieszka (2018): Using translation process research to explore the creation of subtitles: an eye tracking study comparing professional and trainee subtitlers. JoSTrans. 30: 150-180.
- Paivio, Allan (1990): Mental representations: A dual coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Paivio, Allan (1991): Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie. 45(3): 255-287.
- Paivio, Allan (2007): Mind and its evolution: A dual coding theoretical approach. Mahwah: Erlbaum.
- Paivio, Allan and Csapo, Kalman (1973): Picture superiority in free recall: Imagery or dual coding? Cognitive Psychology. 5(2): 176-206.
- Perego, Elisa (2009): The codification of nonverbal information in subtitled texts. In: Jorge Díaz Cintas, ed. New trends in audiovisual translation. Salisbury: Cromwell Press Group, 58-69.
- Perego, Elisa (2016): History, development, challenges and opportunities of empirical research in audiovisual translation. Across Languages and Cultures. 17(2): 155-162.
- Perego, Elisa, del Missier, Fabio, Porta, Marco and Mosconi, Mauro (2010): The cognitive effectiveness of subtitle processing. Media Psychology. 13(13): 243-272.
- Pérez-González, Luis (2014): Audiovisual translation: Theories, methods and issues. London and New York: Routledge.
- Pérez-González, Luis (2019): The Routledge handbook of audiovisual translation. London and New York: Routledge.
- Pinto, Sara Ramos and Adami, Elisabetta (2020): Traduire dans un monde de signes non traduits: l’incidence de la multimodalité en traductologie. Meta. 65(1): 9-28.
- Pociask, Fredrick D. and Morrison, Gary R. (2008): Controlling split attention and redundancy in physical therapy instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development. 56(4): 379-399.
- Rajendran, Dhevi, Duchowski, Andrew, Orero, Pilar, Martínez, Juan and Romero-Fresco, Pablo (2013): Effects of text chunking on subtitling: A quantitative and qualitative examination. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology. 21(1): 5-21.
- Reviers, Nina (2018): Tracking multimodal cohesion in audio description: Examples from a dutch audio-description corpus. Linguistica Antverpiensia, New Series: Themes in Translation Studies. 17: 22-35.
- Robert, Isabelle and Remael, Aline (2017): Assessing quality in live interlingual subtitling: A new challenge. Linguistica Antverpiensia, New Series: Themes in Translation Studies. 16: 168-195.
- Sadoski, Mark and Paivio, Allan (2009): Imagery and text: a dual coding theory of reading and writing. New York: Routledge.
- Schilperoord, Joost (2002): On the cognitive status of pauses in discourse production. In: Thierry Olive and C. Michael Levy, eds. Contemporary tools and techniques for studying writing. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 61-87.
- Sharmin, Selina, Spakov, Oleg, Räihä, Kari-jouko and Jakonbsen, Arnt Lykke (2008): Where on the screen do translation students look while translating, and for how long? Copenhagen Studies in Language. 36: 31-51.
- Sjørup, Annette Camilla (2013): Cognitive effort in metaphor translation: an eye-tracking and key-logging study. Copenhagen: Cophenhagen Business School.
- Stenberg, Georg, Radeborg, Karl and Hedman, Leif R. (1995): The picture superiority effect in a cross-modality recognition task. Memory & Cognition. 23(4): 425-441.
- Sun, Sanjun and Shreve, Gregory M. (2014): Measuring translation difficulty: An empirical study. Target. 26(1): 98-127.
- Sweller, John, Ayres, Paul and Kalyuga, Slava (2011): Cognitive load theory. New York: Springer.
- Szarkowska, Agnieszka (2007): Why are some vocatives not omitted in subtitling? A study based on three selected Polish soaps broadcast on TV polonia. In: Łukasz Bogucki and Krzysztof Kredens, eds. Perspectives on audiovisual translation. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 77-92.
- Tardel, Anke (2020): Effort in semi-automatized subtitling processes: Speech recognition and experience during transcription. Journal of Audiovisual Translation. 3(2): 79-102.
- Tardel, Anke (2021): Measuring effort in subprocesses of subtitling: The case of post-editing via pivot language. In: Michael Carl, ed. Explorations in empirical translation process research. Cham: Springer, 81-110.
- Taylor, Christopher (2016): The multimodal approach in audiovisual translation. Target. 28(2): 222-236.
- Vanderplank, Robert (1988): The value of teletext subtitles in language learning. ELT Journal. 42(4): 272-281.
- Winter, Bodo (2019): Statistics for linguists: An introduction using R. New York: Routledge.
- Wu, Zhiwei and Chen, Zhuojia (2021): A systematic review of experimental research in audiovisual translation 1992-2020. Translation, Cognition & Behavior. 4(2): 281-304.
- Zabalbeascoa, Patrick (2008): The nature of the audiovisual text and its parameters. In: Jorge Díaz Cintas, ed. The didactics of audiovisual translation. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 21-37.
