ror.org/0161xgx34
Résumés
Résumé
La présente étude a pour but d’évaluer l’efficacité de l’adaptation québécoise du programme d’intervention Check and Connect tel qu’implanté sur une période de deux ans dans des conditions réelles auprès d’élèves ciblés du primaire (n = 216). À partir d’un devis expérimental randomisé, les élèves ciblés par le programme (n = 107) ont été comparés avant et après l’intervention aux élèves d’un groupe de contrôle (n = 109). Cet examen a permis d’évaluer les effets du programme chez les élèves y participant, sous l’angle 1) de leur adaptation scolaire, 2) des relations qu’ils entretiennent avec leurs parents et leurs enseignants, 3) de leur inadaptation psychosociale et 4) de leur assiduité et de leur réussite scolaire. Nos résultats indiquent que le programme Check and Connect a certains effets positifs sur l’adaptation scolaire et psychosociale des élèves à risque du primaire ainsi que sur le soutien et les relations que les élèves entretiennent avec leurs parents et leurs enseignants. Par contre, les effets du programme sont plus mitigés quant au retard en classe et au rendement dans les matières de base. Ces derniers résultats méritent cependant d’être mieux compris à la lumière des données d’implantation.
Mots-clés :
- évaluation de programme,
- engagement scolaire,
- décrochage,
- primaire
Abstract
The present study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the Check and Connect program adapted in Quebec (Canada) schools. The program was implemented over a two-year period among a sample of elementary school students (n = 216). Students who participated in the intervention (n = 107) were selected using a randomized experimental design and compared pre- and post-intervention to a control group (n = 109). Different aspects of students’ academic and psychosocial experiences were assessed: 1) school adjustment, 2) relationships with parents and teachers, 3) psychosocial adjustment, and 4) school attendance and achievement. Results indicate that participation to the Check and Connect program is associated with positive school and psychosocial adjustment and better relationships with parents and teachers. However, the program effects were more mitigated in terms of classroom attendance and academic achievement. These last results deserve to be better understood in light of our implementation data.
Keywords:
- Program evaluation,
- student engagement,
- school dropout,
- elementary school
Parties annexes
Bibliographie
- Abadie, A., et Imbens, G. W. (2006). Large sample properties of matching estimators for average treatment effects. Econometrica, 74(1), 235-267.
- Ainsworth, M. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American psychologist, 44(4), 709-716.
- Archambault, I. et Vandenbossche-Makombo, J. (2013). Validation de l’Échelle des dimensions de l’engagement scolaire (ÉDES) chez les élèves du primaire. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, No Pagination Specified. doi: 10.1037/a0031951
- Archambault, I., Janosz, M., Fallu, J.-S., et Pagani, L. S. (2009). Student enga- gement and its relationship with early high school dropout. Journal of Adolescence, 32(3), 651-670. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.06.007
- Baker, J. A., Derrer, R. D., Davis, S. M., Dinklage-Travis, H. E., Linder, D. S., et Nicholson, M. D. (2001). The Flip Side of the Coin: Understanding the School’s Contribution to Dropout and Completion. School Psychology Quarterly, 16(4), 406-426.
- Battin-Pearson, S., Newcomb, M. D., Abbott, R. D., Hill, K. G., Catalano, R. F., et Hawkins, J. D. (2000). Predictors of early high school dropout: A test of five theories. Journal of educational psychology, 92(3), 568-582.
- Becker, S. O., et Ichino, A. (2002). Estimation of average treatment effects based on propensity scores. The stata journal, 2(4), 358-377.
- Birch, S. H., et Ladd, G. W. (1997). The teacher-child relationship and children’s early school adjustment. Journal of School Psychology, 35(1), 61-79. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4405 (96)00029-5
- Bowlby, G., et McMullen, K. (2005). Taux de décrochage provinciaux–Tendances et conséquences. Questions d’éducation, 2(4). Repéré à http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/81-004-x/2005004/8984-fra.htm
- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, Massachusett: Harvard University Press.
- Bushnik, T. (2003). Learning, Earning and Leaving: The relationship between working while in high school and dropping out. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
- Bushnik, T., Barr-Telford, T. et Bussière, P. (2004). In and out of high school: First results from the second cycle of the Youth in Transition Survey, 2002. Ottawa: Statistics Canada and Human Resources and Skills Development Canada.
- Caliendo, M., et Kopeinig, S. (2008). Some practical guidance for the implementation of propensity score matching. Journal of Economic Surveys, 22(1), 31-72.
- Christenson, S. L., Sinclair, M. F., Lehr, C. A., et Godber, Y. (2001). Promoting successful school completion: Critical conceptual and methodological guidelines. School Psychology Quarterly, 16(4), 468-484. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/scpq.16.4.468.19898
- Christenson, S. L., Stout, K., et Pohl, A. (2012). Check & Connect manual: Implementing with fidelity. (3e éd.). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minessota, Institute on community integration.
- Christenson, S. L., et Thurlow, M. L. (2004). School dropouts: Prevention considerations, interventions, and challenges. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(1), 36-39. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214. 2004.01301010.x
- Clark, C., Prior, M., et Kinsella, G. (2002). The relationship between executive function abilities, adaptive behaviour, and academic achievement in children with externalising behaviour problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(6), 785-796.
- Cohen, M. A. (1998). The monetary value of saving a high-risk youth. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 14(1), 5-33. doi: 10.1023/A:1023092324459
- Croninger, R.G. et Lee, V.E. (2001). Social capital and dropping out of high school: Benefits to at-risk students of teachers’ support and guidance. Teachers College Record, 103(4), 548-581. doi: 10.1111/0161-4681.00127
- Dehejia, R. H. (2005). Program evaluation as a decision problem. Journal of Econometrics, 125(1), 141-173.
- Dehejia, R. H., et Wahba, S. (2002). Propensity score-matching methods for nonexperimental causal studies. Review of Economics and statistics, 84(1), 151-161.
- De Witte, K. et Csillag, M. (2012). Does anybody notice? On the impact of improved truancy reporting on school dropout. Education Economics, 22(6), 549-568.
- Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C. M., Reuman, D., Flanagan, C., et Mac Iver, D. (1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents’ experiences in schools and in families. American Psychologist, 48(2), 90-101. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.48.2.90
- Ekstrom, R., Goertz, M., Pollack, J., et Rock, D. (1986). Who drops out of high school and why? Findings from a national study. The Teachers College Record, 87(3), 356-373.
- Ensminger, M. E., et Slusarcick, A. L. (1992). Paths to high school graduation or dropout: A longitudinal study of a first-grade cohort. Sociology of Education, 65(2), 95-113.
- Fallu, J.-S., et Janosz, M. (2003). La qualité des relations élève-enseignants à l’adolescence : un facteur de protection de l’échec scolaire. Revue de psychoéducation et d’orientation, 32(1), 7-29.
- Fergusson, D. M., et Horwood, L. J. (1998). Early conduct problems and later life opportunities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39(8), 1097-1108.
- Fortin, L., Marcotte, D., Potvin, P., Royer, É., et Joly, J. (2006). Typology of students at risk of dropping out of school: Description by personal, family and school factors. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 21(4), 363-383. doi: 10.1007/BF03173508
- Fortin, L., Royer, É., Potvin, P., Marcotte, D., et Yergeau, É. (2004). La prediction du risque de décrochage scolaire au secondaire: facteurs personnels, familiaux et scolaires. Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 36(3), 219.
- Freeman, R. B. (1996). Why do so many young American men commit crimes and what might we do about it? National bureau of economic research paper series. Repéré à http://www.nber.org/papers/w5451.pdf
- Freudenberg, N., et Ruglis, J. (2007). Reframing School Dropout as a Public Health Issue. Preventing chronic disease, 4(4). Repéré à http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2007/oct/pdf/07_0063.pdf
- Gagné, M-È., Marcotte, D. et Fortin, L. (2011). L’impact de la dépression et de l’expérience scolaire sur le décrochage scolaire des adolescents. Revue canadienne de l’éducation, 34(2), 77-92.
- Garnier, H. E., Stein, J. A., et Jacobs, J. K. (1997). The process of dropping out of high school: A 19-year perspective. American Educational Research Journal, 34(2), 395-419.
- Goldschmidt, P., et Wang, J. (1999). When can schools affect dropout behavior? A longitudinal multilevel analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 36(4), 715-738.
- Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 38(5), 581-586.
- Hamre, B. K., et Pianta, R. C. (2001). Early teacher–child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development, 72(2), 625-638. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00301
- Heckman, J., Ichimura, H., Smith, J., et Todd, P. (1998). Characterizing selection bias using experimental data. Econometrica, 66(5), 1017-1098.
- Henry, K.L., Knight, K.E. et Thornberry, T.P. (2012). School disengagement as a predictor of dropout, delinquency, and problem substance use during adolescence and early adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 156-166.
- Hymel, S., Comfort, C., Schonert-Reichl, K., et McDougall, P. (1996). Academic failure and school dropout: The influence of peers. Dans J. Juvonen et K. R. Wentzel (dir.). Social motivation: Understanding children’s school adjustment (pp. 313-345). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Imbens, G. W. (2004). Nonparametric estimation of average treatment effects under exogeneity: A review. Review of Economics and statistics, 86(1), 4-29.
- Janosz, M. (2000). L’abandon scolaire chez les adolescents : perspective Nord-Américaine. VEI Enjeux, 122, 105-127.
- Janosz, M., Bélanger, J., Dagenais, C., Bowen, F., Abrami, P., Cartier, S., Chouinard, R., …, Turcotte, L. (2010). Aller plus loin, ensemble : synthèse du rapport final d’évaluation de la stratégied’intervention Agir autrement. Montréal, QC : Groupe de recherche sur les environnements scolaires, Université de Montréal.
- Janosz, M., Archambault, I., Morizot, J., et Pagani, L. S. (2008). School engagement trajectories and their differential predictive relations to dropout. Journal of Social Issues, 64(1), 21-40. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.00546.x
- Janosz, M., Bouthillier, C., Bowen, F., Chouinard, R., et Desbiens, N. (2007). Rapport de validation du Questionnaire sur l’Environnement Socioéducatif des écoles primaires (QES- Primaire). Montréal, QC : Groupe de recherche sur les environnements scolaires, Université de Montréal.
- Janosz, M., et Le Blanc, M. (1997). Les décrocheurs potentiels au secondaire : prévalence, facteurs de risque et dépistage. PRISME Psychiatrie, recherche et intervention en santé mentale de l’enfant, 7(2), 290-309.
- Janosz, M., Le Blanc, M., Boulerice, B., et Tremblay, R. E. (2000). Predicting different types of school dropouts: A typological approach with two longitudinal samples. Journal of educational psychology, 92(1), 171-190.
- Janosz, M., Pascal, S., Abrami, P., Cartier, S. C., Chouinard, R., Fallu, J.-S., et Desbiens, N., (2010). Rapport final d’évaluation de la stratégie d’intervention Agir autrement. Volume II – Les effets de la Stratégie. Montréal : Groupe de recherche sur les environnements scolaires, Université de Montréal.
- Janosz, M., Pascal, S., Belleau, L., Archambault, I., Parent, S., & Pagani, L., (2013). Les élèves du primaire à risque de décrocher au secondaire : caractéristiques à 12 ans et prédicteurs à 7 ans (vol. 7, fascicule 2). Québec, Québec : Institut de la statistique du Québec.
- Jimerson, S.R., Anderson, G.E. et Whipple, A.D. (2002). Winning the battle and losing the war: Examining the relation between grade retention and dropping out of high school. Psychology in the Schools, 39, 441–457.
- Jimerson, S., Egeland, B., Sroufe, L.A. et Carlson, B. (2000). A prospective longitudinal study of high school dropouts examining multiple predictors across development. Journal of School Psychology, 38, 525–549.
- Kaplan, D. S., Damphousse, K. R., et Kaplan, H. B. (1994). Mental Health Implications of Not Graduating from High School. The Journal of Experimental Education, 62(2), 105-123. doi: 10.1080/00220973.1994.9943834
- Kent, K.M., Pelham, W.E., Molina, B.S.G., Sibley, M.H., Waschbusch, D.A., Yu, J., Gnagy, E.M., Biswas, A., Babinski D.E. et Karch, K.M. (2011). The academic experience of male high school students with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 451-462.
- Kerckhoff, A. C., et Bell, L. (1998). Hidden capital: Vocational credentials and attainment in the United States. Sociology of Education, 71(2), 152-174.
- Klem, A. M., et Connell, J. P. (2004). Relationships matter: Linking teacher support to student engagement and achievement. Journal of School Health, 74(7), 262-273. doi: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2004.tb08283.x
- Kortering, L. J., et Christenson, S. (2009). Engaging students in school and learning: The real deal for school completion. Exceptionality, 17(1), 5-15. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09362830802590102
- Kronick, R. F., et Hargis, C. H. (1998). Dropouts: Who drops out and why - and the recommended action. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publisher.
- Ladd, G. W., Kochenderfer, B. J., et Coleman, C. C. (1997). Classroom peer acceptance, friendship, and victimization: Destinct relation systems that contribute uniquely to children’s school adjustment? Child Development, 68(6), 1181-1197.
- Lamb, S., et Markussen, E. (2011). School dropout and completion: An international perspective. Dans S. Lamb, E. Markussen, R. Teese, J. Polesel et N. Sandberg (dir.), School Dropout and Completion (p. 1-18). Oslo, NO: Springer Netherlands.
- Le Blanc, M. (1998). MASPAQ : Mesures de l’adaptation personnelle et sociale pour les adolescents québécois : Manuel et guide d’utilisation [Measures of Quebec Adolescents’ Social and Personal Adjustment ]. Montreal, Qc : Research Group on Problem Adolescents, School of Psychoeducation, University of Montreal.
- Lechner, M. (2002). Program heterogeneity and propensity score matching: An application to the evaluation of active labor market policies. Review of Economics and Statistics, 84(2), 205-220.
- Lecocq, A., Ammi, M., et Bellarbre, E. (2014). Le score de propension : un guide méthodologique pour les recherches expérimentales et quasi-expérimentales en éducation. Mesure et évaluation en éducation, 37(2), 69-100.
- Lehr, C. A., Hansen, A., Sinclair, M. F., et Christenson, S. L. (2003). Moving beyond dropout towards school completion: An integrative review of data-based interventions. School Psychology Review, 32(3), 342-364.
- Lehr, C. A., Sinclair, M. F., et Christenson, S. L. (2004). Addressing student engagement and truancy prevention during the elementary school years: A replication study of the Check & Connect model. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 9(3), 279-301. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327671espr0903_4
- Levin, H., Belfield, C., Muennig, P., et Rouse, C. (2007). The costs and benefits of an excellent education for all of America’s children. New York, NJ: Columbia University.
- Mac Iver, M. A. (2011). The challenge of improving urban high school graduation outcomes: Findings from a randomized study of dropout prevention efforts. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 16(3), 167-184.
- Marcotte, D., Fortin, L., Royer, É., Potvin, P., et Leclerc, D. (2001). L’influence du style parental, de la dépression et des troubles du comportement sur le risque d’abandon scolaire. Revue des sciences de l’éducation, 27(3), 687-712.
- Masten, A. S., et Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. The American Psychologist, 53(2), 205-220.
- Masten, A. S., Herbers, J. E., Cutuli, J., et Lafavor, T. L. (2008). Promoting competence and resilience in the school context. Professional School Counseling, 12(2), 76-84. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5330/PSC.n.2010-12.76
- Maynard, B. R., Kjellstrand, E. K., et Thompson, A. M. (2013). Effects of Check & Connect on attendance, behavior, and academics: A randomized effectiveness trial. Research on Social Work Practice, 1(1), 1-14.
- McCaul, E. J., Donaldson Jr, G. A., Coladarci, T., et Davis, W. E. (1992). Consequences of dropping out of school: Findings from high school and beyond. The Journal of Educational Research, 85(4), 198-207.
- MELS (2015). Taux de sortie sans diplôme ni qualification (décrochage) parmi les sortants, en formation générale des jeunes, selon le sexe, pour l’année scolaire 2012-2013. Québec, Qc : Ministère de l’éducation, des loisirs et du sports.
- MELS (2012). Taux de sortie sans diplôme ni qualification (décrochage) parmi les sortants, en formation générale des jeunes, selon le sexe, pour l’année scolaire 2010-2011. Québec, Qc : Québec, Qc. Ministère de l’éducation, des loisirs et du sports.
- Meyer, L. A. (1984). Long-term academic effects of the direct instruction project follow through. The Elementary School Journal, 84(4), 380-394.
- Midgley, C., Maehr, M. L., Hruda, L. Z., Anderman, E., Anderman, L., Freeman, K. E., . . . Urdan, T. (2000). Manual for the Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan.
- Nation, M., Crusto, C., Wandersman, A., Kumpfer, K. L., Seybolt, D., Morrissey-Kane, E., et Davino, K. (2003). What works in prevention: Principles of effective prevention programs. American Psychologist, 58(6-7), 449.
- Newbegin, I., et Owens, A. (1996). Self-esteem and anxiety in secondary school achievement. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 11(3), 521-531.
- NRC (2004). Engaging schools: Fostering high school students’ motivation to learn. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
- Oakland, T. (1992). School dropouts: Characteristics and prevention. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 1(4), 201-208.
- OCDE (2003). Regards sur l’éducation - Indicateurs. OECD Publishing, Paris.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2003-fr
- Pagani, L., Boulerice, B., Vitaro, F., et Tremblay, R. E. (1999). Effects of poverty on academic failure and delinquency in boys: A change and process model approach. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40(8), 1209-1219.
- Pagani, L., Tremblay, R. E., Vitaro, F., Boulerice, B., et McDuff, P. (2001). Effects of grade retention on academic performance and behavioral development. Development and psychopathology, 13(2), 297-315.
- Pagani, L. S., Fitzpatrick, C., Archambault, I., et Janosz, M. (2010). School readiness and later achievement: A French Canadian replication and extension. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 984-994. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018881
- Parker, J. G., et Asher, S. R. (1987). Peer relations and later personal adjustment: Are low-accepted children at risk? Psychological bulletin, 102(3), 357.
- Pianta, R. C. (1999). Enhancing relationships between children and teachers. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
- Pianta, R. C. (2001). STRS: Student-teacher Relationship Scale: professional manual. Washingon, DC: Psychological Assessment Resources.
- Prevatt, F., et Kelly, F. D. (2003). Dropping out of school: A review of intervention programs. Journal of School Psychology, 41(5), 377-395. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4405(03)00087-6
- Quiroga, C., Janosz, M., Bisset, S., et Morin, A.J.S. (2013). Early adolescent depression symptoms and school dropout: Mediating processes involving self-reported academic competence and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 552-560.
- Roderick, M. (1994). Grade retention and school dropout: Investigating the association. American Educational Research Journal, 31(4), 729-759.
- Roeser, R. W., Eccles, J. S., et Sameroff, A. J. (1998). Academic and emotional functioning in early adolescence: Longitudinal relations, patterns, and prediction by experience in middle school. Development and psychopathology, 10(02), 321-352.
- Rosenbaum, P. R., et Rubin, D. B. (1983). The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika, 70(1), 41-55.
- Rosenthal, B. S. (1998). Non-school correlates of dropout: An integrative review of the literature. Children and Youth Services Review, 20(5), 413-433. doi: 10.1016/s0190-7409(98)00015-2
- Royer, E., Couture, C., Fortin, L., Potvin, P., et Marcotte, D. (2000). Problèmes d’attention et réussite scolaire au secondaire. Revue canadienne de psycho-éducation, 29(2), 193-206.
- Rubin, D. B., Stuart, E. A., et Zanutto, E. L. (2004). A potential outcomes view of value-added assessment in education. Journal of educational and behavioral statistics, 29, 103-116.
- Rumberger, R. W. (1995). Dropping out of middle school: A multilevel analysis of students and schools. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 583-625.
- Rumberger, R. W. (2011). High School Dropouts in the United States. Dans S. Lamb, E. Markussen, R. Teese, J. Polesel et N. Sandberg (dir.), School Dropout and Completion (p. 275-294). Oslo: Springer Netherlands.
- Rumberger, R. W., Ghatak, R., Poulos, G., Ritter, P. L., et Dornbusch, S. M. (1990). Family influences on dropout behavior in one California high school. Sociology of Education, 63(4), 283-299.
- Rumberger, R. W., et Larson, K. A. (1998). Student mobility and the increased risk of high school dropout. AmercianJournal of Education, 107, 1-35.
- Sinclair, M. F., Christenson, S. L., Elevo, D. L., et Hurley, C. M. (1998). Dropout prevention for youth with disabilities: Efficacy of a sustained school engagement procedure. Exceptional Children, 65(1), 7-21.
- Smith, J. A., et Todd, P. E. (2001). Reconciling conflicting evidence on the performance of propensity-score matching methods. American Economic Review, 91(2), 112-118.
- StatistiqueCanada (2012). Indicateurs de l’éducation au Canada : le ralentissement économique et le niveau de scolarité (no 81-599-X). Ottawa, ON : StatCan.
- Suh, S., Suh, J. et Houston, I. (2007). Predictors of categorical at-risk high school dropouts. Journal of Counseling & Development, 85, 196-204.
- Tanner-Smith, E. E., et Wilson, S. J. (2013). A meta-analysis of the effects of dropout prevention programs on school absenteeism. Prevention science, 14(5), 468-478.
- Teachman, J. D., et Paasch, K. (1998). The family and educational aspirations. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 704-714.
- Teachman, J. D., Paasch, K., et Carver, K. (1996). Social capital and dropping out of school early. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 773-783.
- Temple, J. A., Reynolds, A. J., et Miedel, W. T. (2000). Can Early Intervention Prevent High School Dropout?: Evidence from the Chicago Child-Parent Centers. Urban Education, 35(1), 31-56. doi: 10.1177/0042085900351003
- Tremblay, R. E., Loeber, R., Gagnon, C., Charlebois, P., Larivee, S., et LeBlanc, M. (1991). Disruptive boys with stable and unstable high fighting behavior patterns during junior elementary school. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 19(3), 285-300.
- Tsai, S.-F., et Cheney, D. (2012). The Impact of the Adult–Child Relationship on School Adjustment for Children at Risk of Serious Behavior Problems. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 20(2), 105-114. doi: 10.1177/1063426611418974
- Wang, M.-T., et Eccles, J. S. (2013). School context, achievement motivation, and academic engagement: A longitudinal study of school engagement using a multidimensional perspective. Learning and Instruction, 28(0), 12-23. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.04.002
- Wehlage, G., et Rutter, R. (1986). Dropping out: How much do schools contribute to the problem? The Teachers College Record, 87(3), 374-392.
- Wigfield, A., Eccles, J. S., Yoon, K. S., Harold, R. D., Arbreton, A. J., Freedman-Doan, C., et Blumenfeld, P. C. (1997). Change in children’s competence beliefs and subjective task values across the elementary school years: A 3-year study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 451-469.
10.7202/1035914ar