Résumés
Abstract
Children from single-parent families may face greater challenges related to both internalized and externalized difficulties compared to those raised in two-parent households. The digital age adds further risks, with the need to protect children from online threats such as sexual harassment. This study examines parental mediation and response strategies in the context of child online sexual harassment, focusing on differences between single-parent and two-parent families. A nationally representative quantitative survey was conducted within the deSHAME2 project in Croatia, which involved 1,667 parents of school-age children. Using structured questionnaires and validated measurement scales, the study explored how parents engage in internet safety discussions with their children, their level of concern about online harassment, and the specific actions they take when faced with such incidents. Data were analyzed using nonparametric statistical methods, including the Mann-Whitney test and Spearman’s rank correlation. Findings reveal that while single-parent and two-parent households adopt largely similar parental mediation strategies and responses to online risks, parents in two-parent families were more likely to engage in discussions with their children when a problem was identified. These results suggest that parenting behaviors such as communication, monitoring, and readiness to act may play a more significant role in child online protection than family structure alone. By highlighting these patterns, the study emphasizes the importance of systematic education and support programs for all parents. Fostering proactive parental involvement in and open communication about online safety remain essential steps in reducing children’s exposure to digital risks, regardless of family composition.
Keywords:
- single-parent families,
- two-parent families,
- parental mediation,
- child online sexual harassment,
- parental responses to children’s online sexual harassment
Parties annexes
Bibliography
- Álvarez M., Torres, A., Rodríguez, E., Padilla, S., & Rodrigo, M. J. (2013) Attitudes and parenting dimensions in parents’ regulation of Internet use by primary and secondary school children. Computers & Education, 67, 69–78 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.03.005
- Amato, P. R., & Anthony, C .J. (2014). Estimating the effects of parental divorce and death with fixed effects models. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76(2), 370–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12100
- Benedetto, L., & Ingrassia, M. (2021). Digital parenting: Raising and protecting children in media world. In L. Benedetto & M. Ingrassia (Eds.), Parenting: Studies by an ecocultural and transactional perspective (Ch. 8). IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92579
- Borawski, E. A., Ievers-Landis, C. E., Lovegreen, L. D., & Trapl, E. S. (2003). Parental monitoring, negotiated unsupervised time, and parental trust: The role of perceived parenting practices in adolescent health risk behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 33(2), 60–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(03)00100-9
- Brkić, M., & Jovović, I. (2016.). Moja jednoroditeljska obitelj [My single-parent family; Brochure]. Udruga Roditelji u Akciji – Roda. https://www.roda.hr/media/attachments/udruga/projekti/kaleidoskop/Moja jednoroditeljska obitelj.pdf
- Byrne, S., Katz, S. J., Lee, T., Linz, D., & McIlrath, M. (2014). Peers, predators, and porn: Predicting parental underestimation of children’s risky online experiences. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19(2), 215–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12040
- Cairney, J., Boyle, M., Offord, D. R., & Racine, Y. (2003). Stress, social support and depression in single and married mothers. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 38(8), 442–449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-003-0661-0
- Caivano, O., Leduc, K., & Talwar, V. (2020). When you think you know: The effectiveness of restrictive mediation on parental awareness of cyberbullying experiences among children and adolescents. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 14(1), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2020-1-2
- Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Family. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/family
- Chavda, K., & Nisarga, V. (2023). Single parenting: Impact on child’s development. Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 19(1),14–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/09731342231179017
- Chen, L., Liu, X., & Tang, H. (2023). The interactive effects of parental mediation strategies in preventing cyberbullying on social media. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 16,1009–1022. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S386968
- Chen, V. H. H., & Chng, G. S. (2016). Active and restrictive parental mediation over time: Effects on youths’ self-regulatory competencies and impulsivity. Computers & Education, 98(1), 206–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.03.012
- Childnet. (n.d.). Our projects: Project deSHAME. https://www.childnet.com/what-we-do/our-projects/project-deshame/
- Childnet International. (2019). Preventing online sexual harassment: A whole-school approach. https://www.childnet.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/2_Preventing_Online_Sexual_Harassment.pdf
- Clark, L. S. (2011). Parental mediation theory for the digital age. Communication Theory, 21(4), 323–343. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2011.01391.x
- Corcoran, E., Doty, J., Wisniewski, P., & Gabrielli, J. (2022). Youth sexting and associations with parental media mediation. Computers in Human Behavior, 132, Article 107263, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107263
- Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2002). Effects of marital conflict on children: Recent advances and emerging themes in process-oriented research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(1), 31–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00003
- Daneels, R., & Vanwynsberghe, H. (2017). Mediating social media use: Connecting parents’ mediation strategies & social media literacy. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 11(3), Article 5. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2017-3-5
- Dishion, T. J., Nelson, S. E., & Bullock, B. M. (2004). Premature adolescent autonomy: Parent disengagement and deviant peer process in the amplification of problem behaviour. Journal of Adolescence, 27(5), 515–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.06.005
- Duerager, A. & Livingstone, S. (2012) How can parents support children’s internet safety? EU Kids Online, The London School of Economics and Political Science. https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/42872/
- Gallego, F. A., Malamud, O., & Pop-Eleches, C. (2020). Parental monitoring and children’s internet use: The role of information, control, and cues. Journal of Public Economics, 188, Article 104208, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047272720300724
- Garmendia, M., Garitaonandia, C., Martínez, G., & Casado, M. Á. (2012). The effectiveness of parental mediation. In S. Livingstone, L. Haddon, & A. Görzig (Eds.), Children, risk and safety on the internet: Research and policy challenges in comparative perspective (pp. 231-244). Bristol University Press. https://doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781847428837.003.0018
- Harknett, K. S., & Hartnett, C. S. (2011). Who lacks support and why? An examination of mothers’ personal safety nets. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73(4), 861–875. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2011.00852.x
- Hayatbakhsh, R., Clavarino, A. M., Williams, G. M., Bor, W., O’Callaghan, M. J., & Najman, J. M. (2013). Family structure, marital discord and offspring’s psychopathology in early adulthood: A prospective study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 22(11), 693–700. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-013-0464-0
- Huang, X.-C., Zhang, Y.-N., Wu, X.-Y., Jiang, Y., Cai, H., Deng, Y.-Q., Luo, Y., Zhao, L.-P., Liu, Q.-L., Luo, S.-Y., Wang, Y.-Y., Zhao, L., Jiang, M.-M., & Wu, Y.-B. (2023). A cross-sectional study: Family communication, anxiety, and depression in adolescents: The mediating role of family violence and problematic internet use. BMC Public Health, 23(1), Article 1747. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16637-0. Correction in BMC Public Health, 23(1), Article 2345. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-17226-x
- Khurana, A., Bleakley, A., Jordan, A. B., & Romer, D. (2014). The protective effects of parental monitoring and internet restriction on adolescents’ risk of online harassment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44, 1039–1047. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0242-4
- Livingstone, S., & Helsper, E. J. (2007). Taking risks when communicating on the Internet: The role of offline social-psychological factors in young people’s vulnerability to online risks. Information, Communication & Society, 10(5), 619–644. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691180701657998
- Livingstone, S., Ólafsson, K., Helsper, E. J., Lupiáñez‐Villanueva, F., Veltri, G. A., & Folkvord, F. (2017). Maximizing opportunities and minimizing risks for children online: The role of digital skills in emerging strategies of parental mediation. Journal of Communication, 67(1), 82–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12277
- Luthar, S. S., & Ciciolla, L. (2015). Who mothers mommy? Factors that contribute to mothers’ well-being. Developmental Psychology, 51, 1812–1823. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000051
- Mesch, G. S. (2009). Parental mediation, online activities, and cyberbullying. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 12(4), 387–393. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2009.0068
- Murry, V. M., Bynum, M. S., Brody, G. H., Willert, A., & Stephens, D. (2001). African American single mothers and children in context: A review of studies on risk and resilience. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4, 133–155. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011381114782
- Nikken, P., & de Haan, J. (2015). Guiding young children’s internet use at home: Problems that parents experience in their parental mediation and the need for parenting support. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 9(1), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2015-1-3
- Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Coyne, S. M. (2011). “Turn that thing off!” Parent and adolescent predictors of proactive media monitoring. Journal of Adolescence, 34(4), 705–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.09.002
- Perales, F., Johnson, S. E., Baxter, J., Lawrence, D., & Zubrick, S. R. (2017). Family structure and childhood mental disorders: New findings from Australia. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 52(4), 423–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-016-1328-y
- Ramljak, T., Vejmelka, L., & Matković, R. (2025). Adolescent roles and reactions to online sexual harassment: Insights from a Croatian deSHAME study. Psychology International, 7(1), Article 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/psycholint7010026
- Smahel, D., Machackova, H., Mascheroni, G., Dedkova, L., Staksrud, E., Ólafsson, K., Livingstone, S., & Hasebrink, U. (2020). EU Kids Online 2020: Survey results from 19 countries. EU Kids Online, The London School of Economics and Political Science. https://doi.org/10.21953/lse.47fdeqj01ofo
- Stahlmann, K., Hebestreit, A., DeHenauw, S. Hunsberger, M., Kaprio, J., Lissner, L., Molnár, D., Ayala-Marín, A. M., Reisch, L. A., Russo, P., Tornaritis, M., Veidebaum, T., Pohlabeln, H., & Bogl, L. H. (2020). A cross-sectional study of obesogenic behaviours and family rules according to family structure in European children. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 17, Article 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-00939-2
- Staksrud, E., & Livingstone, S. (2009). Children and online risk: Powerless victims or resourceful participants? Information, Communication & Society, 12(3), 364–387. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691180802635455
- Symons, K., Ponnet, K., Walrave, M., & Heirman, W. (2017) A qualitative study into parental mediation of adolescents’ internet use. Computers in Human Behavior, 73, 423–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.04.004
- Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Pearson.
- Valcke, M., Bonte, S., De Wever, B., & Rots, I. (2010). Internet parenting styles and the impact on Internet use of primary school children. Computers & Education, 55, 454–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.02.009
- Van Gasse, D., & Mortelmans, D. (2020). Reorganizing the single-parent family system: Exploring the process perspective on divorce. Family Relations, 69(5), 1100–1112. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12432
- Vejmelka, L., Matković, R., & Rajter, M. (2022). Cyberbullying in COVID-19 pandemic decreases? Research of internet habits of Croatian adolescents. Information, 13(12), Article 586. https://doi.org/10.3390/info13120586
- Vejmelka, L., Matković, R., Rajter, M., & Ramljak, T. (2023). DeShame Croatia: Student reactions and consequences of online sexual harassment in high schools. Proceedings of the 46th MIPRO ICT and Electronics Convention (MIPRO), 1501–1507. https://doi.org/10.23919/mipro57284.2023.10159905
- Wachs, S., Michelsen, A., Wright, M. F., Gámez-Guadix, M., Almendros, C., Kwon, Y., Na, E.-Y., Sittichai, R., Singh, R., Biswal, R., Görzig, A., & Yanagida, T. (2020). A routine activity approach to understand cybergrooming victimization among adolescents from six countries. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 23(4), 218–224. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0426
- Whittle, H., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C., Beech, A., & Collings, G. (2013). A review of online grooming: Characteristics and concerns. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18(1) 62–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.09.003
- Wisniewski, P., Xu, H., Rosson, M. B., & Carroll, J. M. (2017). Parents just don’t understand: Why teens don’t talk to parents about their online risk experiences. CSCW ’17: Proceedings of the 2017 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing, 523–540. https://doi.org/10.1145/2998181.2998236
- Wood, E. E., Kennison, S. M., & Jackson, G. C. (2023). The role of parenting style of single parents in young children’s risk-taking. Current Psychology, 42, 15915–15924. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00178-0
- Wurtele, S. K. (2017). Understanding and preventing the sexual exploitation of youth. In Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809324-5.05192-0
- Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2004). Youth engaging in online harassment: Associations with caregiver-child relationships, Internet use, and personal characteristics. Journal of Adolescence, 27(3), 319–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.03.007
- Youssef, E., Ali, S., Al Malek, M., & Riaz, S. (2025). Online risks and parental mediation in social media usage among kids: A quantitative study in Rawalpindi City. Frontiers in Communications, 9, Article 1521814. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2024.1521814
- Zapf, H., Boettcher, J., Haukeland, Y., Orm, S., Coslar, S., & Fjermestad, K. (2023). A systematic review of the association between parent-child communication and adolescent mental health. JCPP Advances, 4(2), Article e12205. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcv2.12205

