ror.org/01e6qks80
Résumés
Abstract
The health and wellness of Indigenous peoples continue to be impacted by the harmful colonization practices enforced by the Government of Canada. While the long-term health impacts of the Indian Residential School (IRS) system are documented, empirical evidence elucidating the relationship between the IRSs and the risk of offspring experiencing other collective childhood traumas, such as the Sixties Scoop (1950-1990) and the inequities within the child welfare system (CWS), is needed. Through an online study, we explored the links between familial (parents/grandparents) IRS attendance and subsequent involvement in the CWS in a non-representative sample of Indigenous adults in Canada born during the Sixties Scoop era. The final sample comprised 433 adults who self-identified as Status First Nation (52.2%), non-Status First Nation (23.6%), and Métis (24.2%). The study found that adults with a parent who attended IRS were more likely to have spent time in foster care or in a group home during the Sixties Scoop era. They were also more likely to have grown up in a household in which someone used alcohol or other drugs, had a mental illness or a previous suicide attempt, had spent time in prison, had lower mean levels of general household stability, and tended to have lower household economic stability. Moreover, the relationship between parental IRS attendance and foster care was explained, in part (i.e., mediated) by a higher childhood household adversity score. These findings highlight that the intergenerational cycles of household risk introduced by the IRS system contribute to the cycles of childhood adversity and increased risk of spending time within the CWS in Canada. This is the first study among Indigenous adults from across Canada to demonstrate quantitatively that being affected by the CWS during the Sixties Scoop era is linked to intergenerational cycles of risk associated with the IRS system.
Keywords:
- Child welfare,
- childhood adversity,
- foster care,
- residential school,
- Sixties Scoop
Parties annexes
Bibliography
- Abdulwasi, M. (2015). The Sixties Scoop among Aboriginal veterans: A critical narrative study (3263). [Doctoral dissertation, Western University]. Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository.
- Alston-O’Connor, E. (2010). The Sixties Scoop: Implications for social workers and social work education. Critical Social Work, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.22329/csw.v11i1.5816
- Badgely, C. (1991). Adoption of Native children in Canada: A policy analysis and research report. In H. Altstein, & R. J. Simon (Eds.), Intercountry adoption: A multinational perspective (pp. 55–74). Praeger Publishers.
- Barker, B., Sedgemore, K., Tourangeau, M., Lagimodiere, L., Milloy, J., Dong, H., & DeBeck, K. (2019). Intergenerational trauma: The relationship between residential schools and the child welfare system among young people who use drugs in Vancouver, Canada. Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(2), 248–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.01.022
- Blackstock, C. (2007). Residential schools: Did they really close or just morph into child welfare?. Indigenous Law Journal, 6(1), 71–78.
- Blackstock, C., Trocmé, N., & Bennett, M. (2004). Child maltreatment investigations among Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal families in Canada. Violence Against Women, 10(8), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1077801204266312
- Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2009). Intergenerational trauma: Convergence of multiple processes among First Nations peoples in Canada. Journal of Aboriginal Health, 5(3), 6–47.
- Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2010). Decomposing identity: Differential relationships between several aspects of ethnic identity and the negative effects of perceived discrimination among First Nations adults in Canada. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 26(4), 507–516. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021373
- Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2014a). The intergenerational effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the concept of historical trauma. Transcultural Psychiatry, 51(3), 320–338. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F1363461513503380
- Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2014b). Origins of lateral violence in Aboriginal communities: A preliminary study of student-to-student abuse in residential schools. Aboriginal Healing Foundation. http://www.ahf.ca/downloads/lateral-violence-english.pdf
- Bombay, A., Matheson, K., Yurkiewich, A., Thake, J., & Anisman, H. (2012). Adult personal wellness and safety. In First Nations Information Governance Centre (Ed.), First Nations Regional Health Survey (RHS) Phase 2 (2008/10)—National Report on Adults, Youth, and Children Living in First Nations Communities (pp. 212–228). First Nations Information Governance Centre.
- Bombay, A., McQuaid, R. J., Schwartz, F., & Thomas, A. Anisman, H., Matheson, K. (2018). Suicidal thoughts and attempts in First Nations communities: Links to Indian Residential School attendance across development. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 10(1), 123-131. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2040174418000405
- Bougie, E., & Senécal, S. (2010). Registered Indian children’s school success and intergenerational effects of residential schooling in Canada. The Intergenerational Indigenous Policy Journal, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2010.1.1.5
- Brittain, M., & Blackstock, C. (2015). First Nations child poverty: A literature review and analysis. First Nations Children’s Action Research and Education Service. https://fncaringsociety.com/sites/default/files/First%20Nations%20Child%20Poverty%20-%20A%20Literature%20Review%20and%20Analysis%202015-3.pdf
- Carriere, J. (2005). Connectedness and health for First Nation adoptees. Paediatrics & Child Health, 10(9), 545-548. https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fpch%2F10.9.545
- Chartier, M. J., Walker, J. R., Naimark, B. (2010) Separate and cumulative effects of adverse childhood experiences in predicting adult health and health care utilization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(6), 454–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.09.020
- Chrisjohn, R., Young, S., & Maraun, M. (1997). The circle game: Shadows and substance in the Indian Residential School experience in Canada. Theytus Books.
- Corrado, R. R., & Cohen, I. M. (2003). Mental health profiles for a sample of British Columbia’s Aboriginal survivors of the Canadian residential school system. Aboriginal Healing Foundation. http://www.ahf.ca/downloads/mental-health.pdf
- Edwards, V. J., Holden, G. W, Felitti, V. J, Anda, R. F. (2003). Relationship between multiple Forms of childhood maltreatment and adult mental health in community respondents: Results from the adverse childhood experiences study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(8), 1453–1460. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.8.1453
- Evans-Campbell, T. (2008). Historical trauma in American Indian/Native Alaska communities: A multilevel framework for exploring impacts on individuals, families, and communities. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(3), 316-338. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0886260507312290
- Fallon, B., Chabot, M., Fluke, J., Blackstock, C., Sinha, V., Allan, K., & MacLaurin, B. (2015). Exploring alternate specifications to explain agency-level effects in placement decisions regarding Aboriginal children: Further analysis of the Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect Part C. Child abuse & neglect, 37(1), 97–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.10.002
- First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada et al. v Attorney General of Canada, 2016 CHRT 2, 83 CHRR D/207.
- First Nations Information Governance Centre [FNIGC] (2012). First Nations Regional Health Survey (RHS) 2008-2010: National report on adults, youth, and children living in First Nations communities. FNIGC. https://fnigc.ca/sites/default/files/First%20Nations%20Regional%20Health%20Survey%20(RHS)%202008-10%20-%20National%20Report.pdf
- FNIGC (2018). National Report of the First Nations Regional Health Survey (RHS) Phase 3: Volume 1. FNIGC. https://fnigc.ca/sites/default/files/docs/fnigc_rhs_phase_3_national_report_vol_1_en_final_web.pdf
- For the Cedar Project Partnership, Clarkson, A. F., Christian, W. M., Pearce, M. E., Jongbloed, K. A., Caron, N. D., Teegee, M. P., Moniruzzaman, A., Schechter, M. T., & Spittal, P. M. (2015). The Cedar Project: Negative health outcomes associated with involvement in the child welfare system among young Indigenous people who use injection and non-injection drugs in two Canadian cities. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 106, e265-e270. https://doi.org/10.17269/cjph.106.5026
- Fournier, S., & Crey, E. (1997). Stolen from our embrace: The abduction of First Nations children and the restoration of Aboriginal communities. Douglas & McIntyre.
- Furniss, E. (2002). Victims of benevolence: The dark legacy of the Williams Lake Residential School. Arsenal Pulp Press.
- Hamilton, A. C., & Sinclair, C. M. (1999). Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba. Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission. http://www.ajic.mb.ca/volume.html
- Hayes, A. F. (2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling [White paper]. Ohio State University. http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf
- Johnston, P. (1983). Native children and the child welfare system. Lorimer.
- Jones, A., & Sinha V. (2015). Long-term trends in out of home care for on-reserve First Nations children. Centre for Research on Children and Families. https://cwrp.ca/sites/default/files/publications/en/164e.pdf
- Kirmayer, L. J., Tait, C. L., & Simpson, C. (2009). The mental health of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. In L. J Kirmayer, & G. G. Valaskakis (Eds.), Healing traditions: The mental health of Aboriginal peoples in Canada (pp. 3–35). University of British Columbia Press.
- Kirmayer, L. J., Brass, G. M., & Tait, C. L. (2000). The mental health of Aboriginal peoples: Transformations of identity and community. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 45(7), 607–616. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F070674370004500702
- Knockwood, I. (1994). Out of the depths: The experiences of Mi’kmaq children at the Indian Residential School at Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia. Fernwood Publishing.
- Knoke, D., Goodman, D., Leslie, B., & Trocmé, N. (2007). Differences in the factors associated with out-of-home placement for children and youth. Canadian Social Work, 9(1), 26–46.
- Lafrance, J., & Collins, D. (2003). Residential schools and Aboriginal parenting: Voice of parents. Native Social Work Journal, 4(1), 104–125.
- Larkin , H., Shields. J. J., & Anda, R .F. (2012) The health and social consequences of adverse childhood experiences (ACE) across the lifespan: An introduction to prevention and intervention in the community. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 40(4), 263–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2012.707439
- de Leeuw, S., Greenwood, M., & Cameron, E. (2010). Deviant constructions: How governments preserve colonial narratives of addictions and poor mental health to intervene into the lives of Indigenous children and families in Canada. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 8, 282–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-009-9225-1
- Libesman, T. (2004). Child welfare approaches for Indigenous communities: International perspectives. Issues, 20, 1–40.
- McKenzie, H. A., Varcoe, C., Browne, A. J., & Day, L. (2016). Disrupting the continuity among. residential schools, the Sixties Scoop, and child welfare: An analysis of colonial and neocolonial discourses. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2016.7.2.4
- McQuaid, R. J., Bombay, A., McInnis, O. A., Humeny, C., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2017). Suicide ideation and attempts among First Nations peoples living on-reserve in Canada: The intergenerational and cumulative effects of Indian residential schools. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 62(6), 422-430. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0706743717702075
- Miller, J. R. (1996). Shingwauk’s vision: A history of Native residential schools. University of Toronto Press.
- Milloy, J. S. (2017). A national crime: The Canadian government and the residential school system (Vol. 11). University of Manitoba Press.
- Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples [RCAP]. (1996). Looking forward, looking back: Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (Volume 1). Canada Communication Group. http://data2.archives.ca/e/e448/e011188230-01.pdf
- Sinclair, R. (2007). Identity lost and found: Lessons from the Sixties Scoop. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 3(1), 65–82.
- Sinha, V., & Kozlowki, A. (2013). The structure of Aboriginal child welfare in Canada. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2013.4.2.2
- Sinha, V., Trocmé, N., Fallon, B., & MacLaurin, B. (2013). Understanding the investigation-stage overrepresentation of First Nations children in the child welfare system: An analysis of the First Nations component of the Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect 2008. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(10), 821-831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.11.010
- Starr, L. (2016). First Nations experiences with adoption and reunification: A family and community process (http://hdl.handle.net/1828/7498) [Master’s thesis, University of Victoria]. University of Victoria Electronic Theses and Dissertations.
- Statistics Canada (2016). Data tables, 2016 census. Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/98-400-X
- Stirrett, N. (2015). Re-visiting the Sixties Scoop: Relationality, kinship and honouring Indigenous stories (http://hdl.handle.net/1974/13904) [Master’s thesis, Queens University]. Queen’s Graduate Theses and Dissertations.
- Stout, R., & Peters, S. (2011). Kiskinohamâtôtâpânâsk: Inter-generational effects on professional First Nations women whose mothers are residential school survivors. Prairie Women’s Centre for Research. http://www.pwhce.ca/pdf/kiskino.pdf
- Swidrovich, C. (2004). Positive experiences of First Nations children in non-Aboriginal foster care or adoptive care: De-constructing the “Sixties Scoop” [Unpublished master’s thesis]. University of Saskatchewan.
- Tait, C. L., Henry, R., & Walker, R. L. (2013). Child welfare: A social determinant of health for Canadian First Nations and Metis children. Pimatisiwin, 11(1), 39–53.
- Timpson, J. B. (1993). Four decades of child welfare services to native Indians in Ontario: A contemporary attempt to understand the ‘Sixties Scoop’ in historical, socioeconomic, and political perspectives [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Wilfred Laurier University.
- Trocmé, N., MacLaurin, B., Fallon, B., Knoke, D., Pitman, L., & McCormack, M. (2006). Mesnmimk Wasatek catching a drop of light: Understanding the overrepresentation of First Nations children in Canada’s child welfare system: An analysis of the Canadian incidence study of reported child abuse and neglect (CIS-2003). Centre of Excellence for Child Welfare.
- Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada [TRC] (2015). The final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (Vols. 1–6). Ottawa, ON: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada.
- Wilk, P., Maltby, A., & Cooke, M. (2017). Residential schools and the effects on Indigenous health and well-being in Canada–a scoping review. Public Health Reviews, 38(8). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-017-0055-6
- Wright Cardinal, S. (2017). Beyond the Sixties Scoop: Reclaiming Indigenous identity, reconnection to place, and reframing understandings of being Indigenous (https://dspace.library.uvic.ca//handle/1828/8956) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Victoria]. University of Victoria Electronic Theses and Dissertations.
10.7202/1069527ar