Résumés
Abstract
Northern First Nations housing has been shaped by a history of colonial exploitation and a state of continuous crisis. Where external housing solutions have failed, many Indigenous communities are building a self-determined reimagination of housing and home. Researchers are often invited to support this work, and through participatory research methods, can work together with communities to influence policy, program and systems change. However, engaging northern First Nations in research in the colonial context comes with numerous ethical considerations which often extend beyond the scope of institutional research ethics review. Grounded in a decade of planning and policy research experience engaging the voices of northern First Nations, this article offers reflections on critical ethical questions about research in this context. Exploring the complexities of balancing the ethical requirements of institutions with those set out by context and relationships, this article provides insight into the importance of relational ethical practice when engaged in planning and policy research with northern First Nations.
Keywords:
- Relational Ethics,
- Research Ethics,
- Participatory Research,
- First Nations,
- Indigenous,
- Indigenous Planning
Résumé
Le logement des Premières Nations du Nord a été façonné par une histoire d'exploitation coloniale et un état de crise permanente. Là où les solutions externes en matière de logement ont échoué, de nombreuses communautés autochtones construisent une réinvention autodéterminée du logement et de l'habitat, fondée sur l'autodétermination. Les chercheurs sont souvent invités à soutenir ce travail et, grâce à des méthodes de recherche participatives, peuvent collaborer avec les communautés pour influencer les changements de politiques, de programmes et de systèmes. Cependant, la participation des Premières Nations du Nord à la recherche dans un contexte colonial soulève de nombreuses considérations éthiques qui dépassent souvent le cadre de l'examen éthique de la recherche institutionnelle. S'appuyant sur une décennie d'expérience en matière d’aménagement et de recherche sur les politiques impliquant les Premières Nations du Nord, cet article propose une réflexion sur les questions éthiques cruciales liées à la recherche dans ce contexte. Explorant les complexités de l'équilibre entre les exigences éthiques des institutions et celles dictées par le contexte et les relations, cet article donne un aperçu de l'importance de la pratique éthique relationnelle dans le cadre de la recherche en matière d’aménagement et de politiques avec les Premières Nations du Nord.
Mots-clés :
- Éthique Relationnelle,
- Éthique de la Recherche,
- Recherche participative,
- Premières Nations,
- Autochtone,
- Aménagement Autochtone
Parties annexes
Bibliography
- Aldridge, J. (2012). Working with vulnerable groups in social research: Dilemmas by default and design. Qualitative Research, 14(1), 112–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794112455041
- Allen, G., & Israel, M. (2018). Moving beyond regulatory compliance: building institutional support for ethical reflection in research. In R. Iphofen, M. Tolich (Eds.) Moving beyond Regulatory Compliance: Building Institutional Support for Ethical Reflection in Research (pp. 276-287). SAGE Publications Ltd, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526435446.n19
- Armstrong, A., Flynn, E., Salt, K., Briggs, J., Clarke, R., Vines, J., & MacDonald, A. (2022). Trust and temporality in participatory research. Qualitative Research, 23(4), 1000–1021. https://doi.org/10.1177/14687941211065163
- Assembly of First Nations. (2023). Closing the Infrastructure Gap By 2030. https://afn.bynder.com/m/367574a3a5cb5abe/original/1-AFN-Closing-the-Infrastructure-Gap-by-2030-National-Cost-Estimate-English-report-1.pdf
- Auger, J., Greene, C., & Nath, N. (2023). “Wisdom seeking together”: Circling around research ethics. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2023.14.1.13606
- Ball, J., & Janyst, P. (2008). Enacting research ethics in partnerships with Indigenous communities in Canada: “Do it in a good way.” Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics, 3(2), 33–51. https://doi.org/10.1525/jer.2008.3.2.33
- Banks, S., & Brydon-Miller, M. (2019). Ethics in participatory research for health and social well-being : cases and commentaries. Routledge.
- Biggs, H. (2009). Healthcare Research Ethics and Law (0 ed.). Routledge-Cavendish. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203940402
- Bird-Naytowhow, K., Hatala, A. R., Pearl, T., Judge, A., & Sjoblom, E. (2017). Ceremonies of relationship. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917707899
- Blake, M. K. (2007). Formality and Friendship: Research Ethics Review and Participatory Action Research. ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographies, 6(3), 411–421. https://doi.org/10.14288/acme.v6i3.789
- Blanchet-Cohen, N., Picard, V., Robert-Careau, F., & Gray-Lehoux, C. (2023). ‘We are slowly reclaiming for ourselves’: The generative possibilities of Indigenous youth voices. Journal of Youth Studies, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2023.2248916
- Blankinship, S., & Lamb, L. (2023). An Examination of Household Size, Geographic Remoteness, and Population of First Nation Communities in Canada: The Impact on Selected Wellbeing Indicators. The Journal of Developing Areas, 57(2), 249.
- Bracken-Roche, D., Bell, E., Macdonald, M. E., & Racine, E. (2017). The concept of ‘vulnerability’ in research ethics: An in-depth analysis of policies and guidelines. Health Research Policy and Systems, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-016-0164-6
- Brannelly, T. (2018). An ethics of care research manifesto. International Journal of Care and Caring, 2(3), 367–378. https://doi.org/10.1332/239788218X15351944886756
- Brunger, F., & Wall, D. (2016). “What do they really mean by partnerships?” Questioning the unquestionable good in ethics guidelines promoting community engagement in Indigenous health research. Qualitative Health Research, 26(13), 1862–1877. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732316649158
- Campos, F., & Anderson, G. (2021). Paulo freire's influence on participatory action research. In D. Burns, J. Howard, S. M. Ospina (Eds.) Paulo Freire's influence on participatory action research (Vol. 2, pp. 41-54). SAGE Publications Ltd, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529769432.n4
- Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. (1987). Evaluation of CMHC On-reserve housing programs: summary report. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Program Evaluation Division, Ottawa. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2018/schl-cmhc/nh18-1/NH18-1-442-1987-eng.pdf
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, and Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. (2022). TriCouncil Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans, December 2022. https://ethics.gc.ca/eng/documents/tcps2-2022-en.pdf.
- Cargo, M., & Mercer, S. L. (2008). The value and challenges of participatory research: strengthening its practice. Annual Review of Public Health, 29, 325–350. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.091307.083824
- Carter, T. (1993). Evolution of northern housing policy. Winnipeg: Institute of Urban Studies.
- Cascio, M. A., & Racine, E. (2018). Person-oriented research ethics: Integrating relational and everyday ethics in research. Accountability in Research, 25(3), 170–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989621.2018.1442218
- Castleden, H., Morgan, V. S., & Lamb, C. (2012). “I spent the first year drinking tea”: Exploring Canadian university researchers’ perspectives on community‐based participatory research involving Indigenous peoples. Canadian Geographies / Géographies Canadiennes, 56(2), 160–179. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0064.2012.00432.x
- Christensen, J., Goldhar, C., McCartney, S., Riva, M., Schiff, R., & Herskovits, J. (2025). Reframing Indigenous housing policy in northern Canada. International Journal of Housing Policy, 25(3), 529–539. https://doi.org/10.1080/19491247.2024.2435093
- Coddington, K. (2017). Voice under scrutiny: Feminist methods, anticolonial responses, and new methodological tools. The Professional Geographer, 69(2), 314–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/00330124.2016.1208512
- Cornwall, A., & Jewkes, R. (1995). What is participatory research? Social Science & Medicine (1982), 41(12), 1667–1676. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(95)00127-S
- Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. (1990). Laying the foundations of a new on-reserve housing program: Discussion paper. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.
- Dimayuga, P., Sur, S., Choi, A., Greenwood, H. L., Galloway, T., & Bilton, A. M. (2023). A review of collaborative research practices with Indigenous Peoples in engineering, energy, and infrastructure development in Canada. Energy Sustainability and Society, 13(3). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-023-00382-8
- Doerksen, E., Gunay, A. E., Neufeld, S. D., & Friesen, P. (2025). Community-led approaches to research governance: a scoping review of strategies. Research Ethics Review, 21(3), 519–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/17470161241269154
- Douglas, J. (2021). Research from the heart: Friendship and compassion as personal research values. Australian Feminist Studies, 36(108), 109–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/08164649.2021.1995846
- DuBois, J. M. (2004). Is compliance a professional virtue of researchers? Reflections on promoting the responsible conduct of research. Ethics & Behavior, 14(4), 383-395.
- Duea, S. R., Zimmerman, E. B., Vaughn, L. M., Dias, S., & Harris, J. (2022). A Guide to Selecting Participatory Research Methods Based on Project and Partnership Goals. Journal of Participatory Research Methods, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.35844/001c.32605
- Dyer, S., & Demeritt, D. (2009). Un-ethical review? Why it is wrong to apply the medical model of research governance to human geography. Progress in Human Geography, 33(1), 46–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132508090475
- Ellis, C. (2007). Telling Secrets, Revealing Lives: Relational Ethics in Research With Intimate Others. Qualitative Inquiry, 13(1), 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800406294947
- Ellis, C. (2017). Compassionate research: Interviewing and storytelling from a relational ethics of care. In The Routledge International Handbook on Narrative and Life History (pp. 441–455). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315768199-43
- Finlay, J., Scully, B., Eaton-Kent, M., Farrell, T-R., Dicks, P., & Salerno, J. (2019). Cross-Over Youth Project: Navigating Quicksand. Toronto, ON: Cross-Over Youth Project.
- Fisher, P. (2012). Ethics in qualitative research: ‘Vulnerability’, citizenship and human rights. Ethics and Social Welfare, 6(1), 2–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/17496535.2011.591811
- Freeman, B. (2018). Fostering Resilience with Indigenous Youth. In A. N. Arya, & T. Piggott (Eds.), Under-Served: Health Determinants of Indigenous, Inner-City, and Migrant Populations in Canada (pp. 105–116). Canadian Scholars.
- Gabel, C., & Cameron, E. (2017). The Community Readiness Initiative in Kugluktuk, Nunavut: The Challenge of Adapting an Indigenous Community-Based Participatory Framework to a Multi-Stakeholder, Government- Designed Project Environment. Engaged Scholar Journal (Print), 2(1), 89–108. https://doi.org/10.15402/esj.v2i1.214
- Goldhar, C., Frenette, A., Pugsley, A., Browne, D., Hackett, K., Madsen, V., McNaughton, G., & Christensen, J. (2022). Critical Northern Geography: A Theoretical Framework, Research Praxis and Call to Action in our (Post)Pandemic Worlds. ACME an International E-Journal for Critical Geographies, 21(3), 270.
- Goldstein, M. M. (2017). Revising the Common Rule: Ethics, Scientific Advancement, and Public Policy in Conflict. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 45(3), 452-459. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073110517737546 (Original work published 2017)
- Gollust, S. E., Lewis, J. A., Cluxton, B., Rosengren, K., & Ramanadhan, S. (2025). Planning for Dissemination for Participatory Community-Engaged Research: A Dissemination Curriculum and Planning Protocol. Journal of Participatory Research Methods, 6(1), 220–236. https://doi.org/10.35844/001c.127947
- Gontcharov, I. (2013). Methodological Crisis in the Social Sciences: The New Brunswick Declaration as a New Paradigm in Research Ethics Governance? Transnational Legal Theory, 4(1), 146–156. https://doi.org/10.5235/20414005.4.1.146
- Green, M., Crutcher, V., Lune, O., Mutmainna, M., Lenoir, R., Schuster, A., Urvina, G., & Brown, C. (2024). Methodologies and inequities: Participatory and narrative approaches to research with marginalized communities. Rhetoric of Health & Medicine, 7(2), 225–255. https://doi.org/10.5744/rhm.2024.2005
- Guillemin, M., & Gillam, L. (2004). Ethics, Reflexivity, and “Ethically Important Moments” in Research. Qualitative Inquiry, 10(2), 261-280. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800403262360
- Gustafson, D. L., & Brunger, F. (2014). Ethics, “vulnerability,” and feminist participatory action research with a disability community. Qualitative Health Research, 24(7), 997–1005. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732314538122
- Guta, A., Nixon, S. A., & Wilson, M. G. (2013). Resisting the seduction of “ethics creep”: Using Foucault to surface complexity and contradiction in research ethics review. Social Science & Medicine, 98, 301–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.09.019
- Hall, L. (2014). Developing an ethics of relational responsibility – locating the researcher within the research and allowing connection, encounter and collective concern to shape the intercultural research space. Ethics and Education, 9(3), 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449642.2014.946378
- Hedgecoe, A. (2009). “A Form of Practical Machinery”: The Origins of Research Ethics Committees in the UK, 1967–1972. Medical History, 53(3), 331–350. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0025727300000211
- Heerde, J. A., Merrin, G. J., Le, V. T., Toumbourou, J. W., & Bailey, J. A. (2023). Health of young adults experiencing social marginalization and vulnerability: A cross-national longitudinal study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(3), 1711. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20031711
- Held, M. B. (2019). Decolonizing research paradigms in the context of settler colonialism: An unsettling, mutual, and collaborative effort. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406918821574
- Higginbottom, G., & Liamputtong, P. (2015). What is Participatory Research? Why do it? In Higginbottom, G., & Liamputtong, P. (Eds.) Participatory qualitative research methodologies in health (1st ed.). SAGE.
- Israel, B. A., Schulz, A. J., Parker, E. A., & Becker, A. B. (1998). Review of community-based research: assessing partnership approaches to improve public health. Annual Review of Public Health, 19, 173–202. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.19.1.173
- Israel, M., & Hay, I. (2011). Research ethics for social scientists. SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849209779
- Jull, J., King, A., King, M., Graham, I. D., Morton Ninomiya, M. E., Jacklin, K., Moody-Corbett, P., & Moore, J. E. (2020). A principled approach to research conducted with Inuit, Métis, and First Nations people: Promoting engagement inspired by the CIHR guidelines for health research involving aboriginal people (2007-2010). International Indigenous Policy Journal, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2020.11.2.10635
- Kagan, S. (2018). Normative ethics. Routledge.
- Karram Stephenson, G., Jones, G. A., Fick, E., Begin-Caouette, O., Taiyeb, A., & Metcalfe, A. (2020). What’s the protocol? Canadian university research ethics boards and variations in implementing Tri-Council Policy. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 50(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.47678/cjhe.v50i1.188743
- Kershaw, G. G., Castleden, H., & Laroque, C. P. (2014). An argument for ethical physical geography research on Indigenous landscapes in Canada. Canadian Geographies / Géographies Canadiennes, 58(4), 393–399. https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12092
- Kovach, M. (2021). Indigenous methodologies: characteristics, conversations, and contexts (Second edition.). University of Toronto Press.
- Lahman, M. K. E., Geist, M. R., Rodriguez, K. L., Graglia, P., & DeRoche, K. K. (2011). Culturally responsive relational reflexive ethics in research: the three Rs. Quality & Quantity, 45(6), 1397–1414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-010-9347-3
- Lalonde, J., Thompson, A. E., Duncan, K, & Roger, K. (2021). Hearing their voices: Youth’s experiences of unstable housing and homelessness post-care. Qualitative Social Work, 20(4), 1043-1058. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473325020923022
- Larkin, P. J., de Casterlé, B. D., & Schotsmans, P. (2008). A Relational Ethical Dialogue With Research Ethics Committees. Nursing Ethics, 15(2), 234–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969733007086021
- Leeuw, S. de, Cameron, E. S., & Greenwood, M. L. (2012). Participatory and community‐based research, Indigenous geographies, and the spaces of friendship: A critical engagement. Canadian Geographies / Géographies Canadiennes, 56(2), 180–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0064.2012.00434.x
- Lewis, S. P., & Hasking, P. (2019). Putting the “self” in self-injury research: Inclusion of people with lived experience in the research process. Psychiatric Services, 70(11), 1058–1060. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201800488
- Lux, M. K. (2016). Separate Beds: A History of Indian Hospitals in Canada, 1920s-1980s (1st ed.). University of Toronto Press. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442663114
- Lyeo, J. S., Wong, M. D., Clyke, N., Canoe, B. B., Kinnear, P., Stopps, H., Spence, N. D., & Haines, S. R. (2024). Ten questions concerning First Nations on-reserve housing in Canada. Building and Environment, 257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2024.111544
- Macaulay, A. C. (2017). Participatory research: What is the history? Has the purpose changed? Family Practice, 34(3), 256-258. https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/cmw117
- McCartney, S. (2016). Re-thinking housing: From physical manifestation of colonial planning policy to community-focused networks. Urban Planning, 1(4), 20–31. https://doi.org/10.17645/up.v1i4.737
- McCartney, S., Herskovits, J., & Hintelmann, L. (2018). Failure By Design: The On-Reserve First Nations’ Housing Crisis and Its Roots in Canadian Evaluation Frameworks. Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 38(2), 101-24.
- Meneau, V. (2024). Queering the Relationship Between Research, Researcher and Research Participant: Procedural Ethics, Relational Ethics, and Inverted Hierarchies. Qualitative Report, 29(10), 2564–2581. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2024.6807
- Mertens, D. M. (2021). Transformative research methods to increase social impact for vulnerable groups and cultural minorities. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 20. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069211051563
- Metz, T., & Clark Miller, M. (2016). Relational Ethics. In The International Encyclopedia of Ethics. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee826
- Miracle, V. A. (2016). The Belmont Report: The Triple Crown of Research Ethics. Dimensions of critical care nursing : DCCN, 35(4), 223–228. https://doi.org/10.1097/DCC.0000000000000186
- Moore, C., Castleden, H. E., Tirone, S., & Martin, D. (2017). Implementing the Tri-Council Policy on ethical research involving Indigenous peoples in Canada: So, how’s that going in Mi’kma’ki? International Indigenous Policy Journal, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2017.8.2.4
- Morton Ninomiya, M. E., Hurley, N., & Penashue, J. (2020). A decolonizing method of inquiry: Using institutional ethnography to facilitate community-based research and knowledge translation. Critical Public Health, 30(2), 220–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2018.1541228
- Morton Ninomiya, M. E., & Pollock, N. J. (2017). Reconciling community-based Indigenous research and academic practices: Knowing principles is not always enough. Social Science & Medicine, 172, 28–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.11.007
- Mosby, I. (2013). Administering Colonial Science: Nutrition Research and Human Biomedical Experimentation in Aboriginal Communities and Residential Schools, 1942–1952. Histoire Sociale, 46(1), 145–172. https://doi.org/10.1353/his.2013.0015
- National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979). The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html
- National Indian Brotherhood. (1974). Declaration on Indian housing paper: Policy paper. National Indian Brotherhood.
- O’Connell, M.P. (1965). Canadian Standards of Housing in Indian Reserve Communities. Indian-Eskimo Association of Canada.
- Office of the Auditor General of Canada. (2024). Housing in First Nations Communities. https://www.oag-bvg.gc.ca/i
- Onyemelukwe, C., & Downie, J. (2011). The tunnel at the end of the light? A critical analysis of the development of the Tri-Council Policy statement. Canadian Journal of Law and Society, 26(1), 159–176. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjls.26.1.159
- O’Neill, P. (2011). The evolution of research ethics in Canada: Current developments. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie Canadienne, 52(3), 180–184. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024391
- Orlowski, P. (2019). Freirean Conceptions of Participatory Action Research and Teaching for Social Justice - Same Struggle, Different Fronts. Canadian Journal of Action Research, 20(1), 30-51. https://doi.org/10.33524/cjar.v20i1.445
- Ospina, S., Burns, D., & Howard, J. (2021). Introduction to the handbook: navigating the complex and dynamic landscape of participatory research and inquiry. In D. Burns, J. Howard, S. M. Ospina (Eds.) The SAGE Handbook of Participatory Research and Inquiry. SAGE Publications Ltd, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529769432.n1
- Pasternak, S. (2023). How Colonialism Makes Its World: Infrastructure and First Nation Debt in Canada. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 113(6), 1290–1305. https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2023.2168606
- Peter, F. (2025). Relational Moral Demands. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 125(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/arisoc/aoaf001
- Piggott, T., & Orkin, A. (2018). Deconstructing the Concept of Special Populations for Health Care, Research, and Policy. In A. N. Arya, & T. Piggott (Eds.), Under-Served: Health Determinants of Indigenous, Inner-City, and Migrant Populations in Canada (pp. 105–116). Canadian Scholars..
- Pincock, K., & Jones, N. (2020). Challenging power dynamics and eliciting marginalized adolescent voices through qualitative methods. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406920958895
- Razumenko, F. (2021). The genesis and development of research ethics committees in Canada, 1960–1978. European Journal for the History of Medicine and Health, 78(2), 330–352. https://doi.org/10.1163/26667711-bja10008
- Roest, J., Nkosi, B., Seeley, J., Molyneux, S., & Kelley, M. (2023). Respecting relational agency in the context of vulnerability: What can research ethics learn from the social sciences? Bioethics, 37(4), 379–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/bioe.13139
- Ross, F. C. (2005). Codes and dignity: Thinking about ethics in relation to research on violence. Anthropology Southern Africa, 28(3–4), 99–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/23323256.2005.11499919
- Sanders, J., & Munford, R. (2017). Hidden in plain view. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917704765
- Santinele Martino, A., & Fudge Schormans, A. (2018). When good intentions backfire: University research ethics review and the intimate lives of people labeled with intellectual disabilities. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 19(3). https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-19.3.3090
- Schrag, Z. M. (2010). Ethical imperialism : institutional review boards and the social sciences, 1965-2009. Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Simpson, J. E., & Mendenhall, T. J. (2022). Community-based participatory research with Indigenous youth: A critical review of literature. AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, 18(1), 192–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/11771801221089033
- Sims, J. M. (2010). A brief review of the Belmont report. Dimensions of critical care nursing : DCCN, 29(4), 173–174. https://doi.org/10.1097/DCC.0b013e3181de9ec5
- Smith, L. T. (2012). Decolonizing methodologies: research and indigenous peoples (Second edition.). Zed Books.
- Spellecy, R., & Busse, K. (2021). The History of Human Subjects Research and Rationale for Institutional Review Board Oversight. Nutr Clin Pract, 36(3), 560–567. https://doi.org/10.1002/ncp.10623
- Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples. (2015). Housing on First Nations Reserves: Challenges and Successes, 2nd sess., 41st Parliament. https://sencanada.ca/content/sen/committee/412/appa/rep/rep08feb15b-e.pdf
- Statistics Canada. (2018). North and South - Variant of SGC 2016. https://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/pUtil.pl?Function=getNote&Id=792561&NT=04
- Stiegman, M. L., & Castleden, H. (2015). Leashes and lies: Navigating the colonial tensions of institutional ethics of research involving Indigenous peoples in Canada. International Indigenous Policy Journal, 6(3). https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2015.6.3.2
- Styres, S., Zinga, D., Bennett, S., & Bomberry, M. (2010). Walking in two worlds: Engaging the space between Indigenous community and academia. Canadian Journal of Education / Revue Canadienne de l’éducation, 33(3), 617. https://doi.org/10.2307/canajeducrevucan.33.3.617
- Taylor, A., Taylor-Neu, R., & Butterwick, S. (2018). “Trying to square the circle”: Research ethics and Canadian higher education. European Educational Research Journal, 19(1), 56–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904118785542
- Tolich, M., & Smith, B. (2014). Evolving ethics envy—New Zealand sociologists reading the Canadian Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans. Kōtuitui: New Zealand Journal of Social Sciences Online, 9(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/1177083X.2013.867513
- Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Honouring the truth, reconciling for the future: summary of the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication. https://ehprnh2mwo3.exactdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Executive_Summary_English_Web.pdf
- Tuck, E., & Yang, K. W. (2012). Decolonization is not a metaphor. Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society, 1(1), 1–40.
- Turner, D., & Webb, R. (2014). Ethics and/or Ethics in Qualitative Social Research: Negotiating a Path around and between the Two. Ethics and Social Welfare, 8(4), 383–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/17496535.2012.745583
- United Nations (n.d.) Indigenous Peoples. https://www.un.org/en/fight-racism/vulnerable-groups/indigenous-peoples#:~:text=Indigenous20peoples%20have%20in%20common,cultures%2C%20beliefs%20and%20knowledge%20systems.
- Van den Hoonaard, W.C. (2011). The Seduction of Ethics. University of Toronto Press.
- Van den Hoonaard, W. C. (2018a). Autobiographical notes from inside the ethics regime: Some thoughts on how researchers in the social sciences can own ethics. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 19(3). https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-19.3.3024
- Van den Hoonaard, W. C. (2018b). The vulnerability of vulnerability: Why social scienceresearchers should abandon the doctrine of vulnerability. In R. Iphofen & M. B. Tolich (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative research ethics (pp. 305–321). SAGE Reference. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526435446.n21
- Van Vliet, L., Tarshis, S., Occhiuto, K., Todd, S., Gheorghe, R., & Grassau, P. (2025). Doing Research Differently: Fostering Relational Ethics in Research Teams. Affilia. https://doi.org/10.1177/08861099251326943
- Vasudevan, R., & Novoa E., M. (2021). Pluriversal planning scholarship: Embracing multiplicity and situated knowledges in community-based approaches. Planning Theory, 21(1), 77-100. https://doi.org/10.1177/14730952211000384
- Vaughn, L. M., & Jacquez, F. (2020). Participatory Research Methods – Choice Points in the Research Process. Journal of Participatory Research Methods, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.35844/001c.13244
- Von Benzon, N., & van Blerk, L. (2017). Research relationships and responsibilities: ‘Doing’ research with ‘vulnerable’ participants: Introduction to the special edition. Social & Cultural Geography, 18(7), 895–905. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2017.1346199
- Walker, R. L., & Hartman, A. (2022). Avoiding risk, protecting the “vulnerable”: A story of performative ethics and community research relationships. Engaged Scholar Journal: Community-Engaged Research, Teaching and Learning 8(2): 28-45. https://doi.org/10.15402/esj.v8i2.70776.
- Whetung, M., & Wakefield, S. (2018). Colonial conventions: Institutionalized research relationships and decolonizing research ethics. In L.T. Smith, E. Tuck, & K.W. Yang (Eds.), Indigenous and decolonizing studies in education: Mapping the long view (pp. 146-158). Routledge.
- Wilson, S. (2001). What is Indigenous research methodology? Canadian Journal of Native Education, 25 (2), 175-179. https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/CJNE/article/view/196968/192001
- Woodland, S., Bell-Wykes, K., & Godwin, C. L. (2022). Yarning Up Relations: Enacting a Relational Ethics in Cross-Cultural Research-Based Theater. Qualitative Inquiry, 29(2), 393–402. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778004221099561
- World Medical Association. (1964). Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects [Original document]
- Wynn, L. L., & Israel, M. (2018). The fetishes of consent: Signatures, paper, and writing in research ethics review. American Anthropologist, 120(4), 795–806. https://doi.org/10.1111/aman.13148

