Résumés
Résumé
Les changements climatiques sont au coeur de nouvelles préoccupations chez les aménagistes forestiers. En vue d’une compensation des émissions anthropiques de carbone, la forêt boréale devient de plus en plus au centre des discussions. Le climat froid et la saison de croissance courte amènent la forêt boréale à capter une faible quantité de carbone en comparaison avec la forêt tropicale ou la forêt tempérée. Toutefois, la décomposition de la matière morte, processus qui émet du carbone, y est également faible. La matière organique est alors accumulée au sol. En réponse à un réchauffement du climat, des modèles indiquent que la capacité de la forêt boréale à capter du carbone pourrait augmenter. Les modèles actuels comportent néanmoins encore trop d’incertitudes pour pouvoir proposer des décisions d’aménagement adéquates pour la forêt boréale qui tiennent compte des réponses des puits de carbone face aux changements climatiques. La modélisation représente une simplification des systèmes naturels complexes, qui exclut certains processus qui peuvent interagir dans le système. Dans cet article, nous passons d’abord en revue les processus menant aux échanges de carbone entre la forêt et l’atmosphère. Ensuite, les connaissances actuelles des impacts des changements climatiques sur les réservoirs de carbone en forêt boréale pour l’est du Canada sont exposées. Enfin, nous élaborons sur les incertitudes selon trois types différents : les incertitudes dans les données, les incertitudes structurelles et les incertitudes imprévisibles. Pour chaque type d’incertitude, des recommandations sont proposées afin de les réduire.
Mots-clés :
- modélisation,
- incertitudes,
- forêt boréale,
- réservoirs de carbone,
- changements climatiques
Abstract
Climate change is of major concern for forest managers. The boreal forest is becoming increasingly central to discussions on carbon cycling because of its capacity to compensate for anthropogenic carbon emission. The boreal forest captures relatively small amounts of carbon in comparison to more temperate or tropical forests, due its cold climate and the short growing season. However, emission of carbon from dead matter decomposition is also slow, which can result in high levels of organic matter accumulation. Models suggest that the capacity of the boreal forest to capture carbon could increase in response to climate change but current models have too many uncertainties to be able to inform appropriate management decisions, including responses of boreal carbon sinks to climate change. Models are simplifications of complex natural systems and uncertainties arise from the lack of knowledge of all the processes in the system, many of which could be interacting. In this article, we first synthesize processes leading to carbon exchange between the forest and the atmosphere. Secondly, we present current knowledge of climate change impacts on carbon sinks in the boreal forest in eastern Canada. Finally, we discuss three types of uncertainties: the uncertainties in the data, structural uncertainties and unpredictable uncertainties, and we propose recommendations for reducing each type of uncertainties.
Keywords:
- modeling,
- uncertainties,
- boreal forest,
- carbon stocks,
- climate change
Parties annexes
Bibliographie
- Amiro, B. D., Cantin, A., Flannigan, M. D., de Groot, W. J., 2009, Future emissions from Canadian boreal forest fires, Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 39, pp. 383-395.
- Ainsworth, E. A., Long, S. P., 2005, What have we learned from 15 years of free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE) ? A meta-analytic review of the responses of photosynthesis, canopy properties and plant production to rising CO2, New Phytologyst, 165, pp. 351-372.
- Asselin, H., Payette, S., Fortin, M.-J., Vallée, S., 2003, The northern limit of Pinus banksiana Lamb. in Canada : explaining the difference between the eastern and western distributions, Journal of Biogeography, 30, 11, pp. 1709-1718.
- Balshi, M. S., McGuire, A. D., Zhuang, Q., Melillo, J., Kicklighter, D. W., Kasischke, E., Wirth, C., Flannigan, M., Harden, J., Clein, J. S., Burnside, T. J., McAllister, J., Kurz, W. A., Apps, M., Shvidenko, A., 2007, The role of historical fire disturbance in the carbon dynamics of the pan-boreal region : A process-based analysis, Journal of Geophysical Research, 112.
- Bergeron, Y., Dansereau, P.-R., 1993, Predicting the composition of Canadian southern boreal forest in different fire cycles, Journal of Vegetation Science, 4, 6, pp. 827-832.
- Bergeron, Y., Leduc, A., Harvey, B. D., Gauthier, S., 2002, Natural fire regime : a guide for sustainable management of the Canadian boreal forest, Silva fennica, 36, 1, pp. 81-95.
- Bergeron, Y., Flannigan, M., Gauthier, S., Leduc, A., Lefort, P., 2004, Past, Current and Future Fire Frequency in the Canadian Boreal Forest : Implications for Sustainable Forest Management, AMBIO : A Journal of the Human Environment, 33, 6, pp. 356-360.
- Bergeron, Y., Cyr, D., Drever, R. C., Flannigan, M., Gauthier, S., Kneeshaw, D., Lauzon, E., Leduc, A., Le Goff, H., Lesieur, D., Logan, K., 2006, Past, current and future fire frequences in Quebec's commercial forests : implications for the cumulative effects of harvesting and fire on class structure and natural disturbance-based management, Canadian journal of forest research, 36, 11, pp. 2737-2744.
- Bergeron, Y., Cyr, D., Girardin, M. P., Carcaillet, C., 2010, Will climate change drive 21st century burn rates in Canadian boreal forest outside of its natural variability : collating global climate model experiments with sedimentary charcoal data, International Journal of Wildland Fire, 19, 8, pp. 1127-1139.
- Bonan, G. B., Shugart, H. H., 1989, Environmental Factors and Ecological Processes in Boreal Forests, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 20, 1, pp. 1-28.
- Bond-Lamberty, B., Wang, C., Gower, S. T., 2004, Net primary production and net ecosystem production of a boreal black spruce wildfire chronosequence, Global Change Biology, 10, pp. 473-487.
- Bond-Lamberty, B., Wang, C., Gower, S. T., 2005, Spatiotemporal measurement and modeling of stand-level boreal forest soil temperatures, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 131, 1-2, pp. 27-40.
- Boulanger, Y., S. Gauthier, P. J. Burton, and M.-A. Vaillancourt. in press. An alternative fire regime zonation for Canada. International Journal of Wildland Fire.
- Brown, R. D., Mote, P. W., 2009, The Response of Northern Hemisphere Snow Cover to a Changing Climate, Journal of Climate, 22, 8, pp. 2124-2145.
- Burke, R. A., Zepp, R. G., Tarr, M. A., Miller, W. L., Stocks, B. J., 1997, Effect of fire on soil-atmosphere exchange of methane and carbon dioxide in Canadian boreal forest sites, Journal of Geophysical Research, 102, D24, pp. 29289-29300.
- Caroll, A. L., Régnière, J., Logan, J. A., Taylor, A. F. S., Bentz, B. J., Powell, J. A., 2006. Impacts of Climate Change on Range Expansion by the Mountain Pine Beetle. Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative. British Columbia, Canada, Canadian Forest Service, 20 p.
- Carrasco, J. J., Neff, J. C., Harden, J. W., 2006, Modeling physical and biogeochemical controls over carbon accumulation in a boreal forest soil, Journal of Geophysical Research, 111.
- Chen, J. M., Ju, W., Cihlar, J., Price, D., Liu, J., Chen, W., Pan, J., Black, A., Barr, A., 2003, Spatial distribution of carbon sources and sinks in Canadas forests, Tellus B, 55, pp. 622-641.
- Christensen, J. H., Hewitson, B., Busuioc, A., Chen, A., Gao, X., Held, I., Jones, R., Kolli, R. K., Kwon, W.-T., Laprise, R., Magana Rueda, V., Mearns, L., Menéendez, C. G., Räisänen, J., Rinke, A., Sarr, A., Whetton, P., 2007. Regional Climate Projections. Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manninget al. Cambridge, UK and New York, Cambridge University Press, 94 p.
- Davidson, E. A., Janssens, I. A., 2006, Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change, Nature, 440, 7081, pp. 165-173.
- De Grandpré, L., Gauthier, S., Allain, C., Cyr, D., Périgon, S., Pham, A. T., Boucher, D., Morissette, J., Reyes, G., Aakala, T., Kuuluvaien, T., 2008. Vers un aménagement écosystémique de la forêt boréale de la Côte Nord. Régimes des perturbations et dynamique naturelle. Aménagement écosystémique en forêt boréale. M.-A. V. Sylvie Gauthier, Alain Leduc, Louis De Grandpré Daniel Kneeshaw, Hubert Morin, Pierre Drapeau et Yves Bergeron., Presses de l'Université du Québec. 242-268 p.
- De Groot, W. J., Bothwell, P. M., Carlsson, D. H., Logan, K. A., 2003, Simulating the effects of future fire regimes on western Canadian boreal forests, Journal of Vegetation Science, 14, 3, pp. 355-364.
- Dymond, C., Neilson, E., Stinson, G., Porter, K., MacLean, D., Gray, D., Campagna, M., Kurz, W., 2010, Future Spruce Budworm Outbreak May Create a Carbon Source in Eastern Canadian Forests, Ecosystems, 13, 6, pp. 917-931.
- Euskirchen, E. S., McGuire, A. D., Kicklighter, D. W., Zhuang, Q., Clein, J. S., Dargaville, R. J., Dye, D. G., Kimball, J. S., McDonald, K. C., Melillo, J. M., Romanovsky, V. E., Smith, N. V., 2006, Importance of recent shifts in soil thermal dynamics on growing season length, productivity, and carbon sequestration in terrestrial high-latitude ecosystems, Global Change Biology, 12, pp. 731-750.
- Fan, Z., Neff, J. C., Harden, J. W., Wickland, K. P., 2008, Boreal soil carbon dynamics under a changing climate : A model inversion approach, Journal of Geophysical Research, 113.
- Fisher, R. F., Bonkley, D., 2000. Ecology and Management of Forest soils. Canada, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
- Flannigan, M., Campbell, I., Wotton, M., Carcaillet, C., Richard, P., Bergeron, Y., 2001, Future fire in Canada's boreal forest : paleo ecology results and general circulation model-regional climate model simulations, Canadian journal of forest research, 31, pp. 854-864.
- Flannigan, M., Logan, K., Amiro, B., Skinner, W., Stocks, B., 2005, Future Area Burned in Canada, Climatic Change, 72, 1, pp. 1-16.
- Flannigan, M. D., Krawchuk, M. A., de Groot, W. J., Wotton, M. B., Gowman, L. M., 2009, Implications of changing climate for global wildland fire, International Journal of Wildland Fire, 18, 5, pp. 483-507.
- Fleming, R. A., Candau, J.-N., McAlpine, R. S., 2002, Landscape-Scale Analysis of Interactions between Insect Defoliation and Forest Fire in Central Canada, Climatic Change, 55, 1, pp. 251-272.
- Gauthier, S., De Grandpré, L., Bergeron, Y., 2000, Differences in forest composition in two boreal forest ecoregions of Quebec, Journal of Vegetation Science, 11, 6, pp. 781-790.
- Gedalof, Z. Berg, A.A., 2010, Tree ring evidence for a limited direct CO2 fertilization effect. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 24, GB3027.
- GIEC, 2005. Describing scientific uncertainties in climate change to support analysis of risk and of options. Report on IPCC Workshop, held 11–13 May in Maynooth, Co. . M. Manning, M. Petit, D. Easterlinget al. Kildare, Ireland. 4 p.
- GIEC, 2007. Bilan 2007 des changements climatiques. Contribution des Groupes de travail I, II, III au quatrième rapport d'évaluation du Groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur l'évolution du climat. Genève, Suisse, GIEC, 103 p.
- Girardin, M. P., Bernier, P. Y., Gauthier, S., 2011, Increasing potential NEP of eastern boreal North American forests constrained by decreasing wildfire activity, Ecosphere, 2, 3, pp. 1-25.
- Girardin, M. P., Bernier, P. Y., Raulier, F., Tardif, J. C., Conciatori, F., Guo, X. J., 2011, Testing for a CO2 fertilization effect on growth of Canadian boreal forests. Journal of Geophysical Research, 116, G01012,.
- Girardin, M. P., Mudelsee, M., 2008, Past and future changes in Canadian Boreal wildfire activity, Ecological Applications, 18, 2, pp. 391-406.
- Girardin, M. P., Raulier, F., Bernier, P. Y., Tardif, J. C., 2008, Response of tree growth to a changing climate in boreal central Canada : A comparison of empirical, process-based, and hybrid modelling approaches, Ecological Modelling, 213, 2, pp. 209-228.
- Grant, R. F., Barr, A. G., Black, T. A., Margolis, H. A., Dunn, A. L., Metsaranta, J., Wang, S., McCaughey, J. H., Bourque, C. A., 2009, Interannual variation in net ecosystem productivity of Canadian forests as affected by regional weather patterns - A Fluxnet-Canada synthesis, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 149, 11, pp. 2022-2039.
- Gray, D., 2008, The relationship between climate and outbreak characteristics of the spruce budworm in eastern Canada, Climatic Change, 87, 3, pp. 361-383.
- Harper, K., Boudreault, C., DeGrandpre, L., Drapeau, P., Gauthier, S., Bergeron, Y.,
- 2003. Structure, composition, and diversity of old-growth black spruce boreal forest of the Clay Belt region in Quebec and Ontario. Environmental Review, 11, pp. S79-S98.
- Hély, C., Flannigan, M., Bergeron, Y., McRae, D., 2001, Role of vegetation and weather on fire behavior in the Canadian mixedwood boreal forest using two fire behavior prediction systems, Canadian journal of forest research, 31, 3, pp. 430-441.
- Hennigar, C. R., MacLean, D. A., 2010, Spruce budworm and management effects on forest and wood product carbon for an intensively managed forest, Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 40, pp. 1736-1750.
- Hessl, A. E., 2011, Pathways for climate change effects on fire : Models, data, and uncertainties, Progress in Physical Geography, 35, 3, pp. 393-407.
- Hickler T., Smith, B., Prentice, I. C., Mjofors, K., Miller, P., Arneth, A., Sykes, M. T. 2008, CO2 fertilization in temperate FACE experiments not representative of boreal and tropical forests, Global Change Biology, 14, pp. 1531-1542.
- Hilli, S., Stark, S., Derome, J., 2008, Carbon Quality and Stocks in Organic Horizons in Boreal Forest Soils, Ecosystems, 11, 2, pp. 270-282.
- Hobbie, S. E., Schimel, J. P., Trumbore, S. E., Randerson, J. R., 2000, Controls over carbon storage and turnover in high-latitude soils, Global Change Biology, 6, pp. 196-210.
- House, J. I., Prentice, I. C., Ramankutty, N., Houghton, R. A., Heimann, M., 2003, Reconciling apparent inconsistencies in estimates of terrestrial CO2 sources and sinks, Tellus B, 55, pp. 345-363.
- Hulme, M., Pielke, R., Dessai, S., 2009, Keeping prediction in perspective, Nature Reports Climate Change. 126-127.
- International Boreal Conservation Campaign, 2011, Boreal Forest Protection Critical in world's fight against global warming, [En ligne] http://www.interboreal.org/globalwarming/index-french.html.
- Johnstone, J., Chapin, F., 2006, Effects of Soil Burn Severity on Post-Fire Tree Recruitment in Boreal Forest, Ecosystems, 9, 1, pp. 14-31.
- Kashian, D. M., Romme, W. H., Tinker, D. B., Turner, M. G., Ryan, M. G., 2006, Carbon Storage on Landscapes with Stand-replacing Fires, BioScience, 56, 7, pp. 598-606.
- Kljun, N., Black, T., Griffis, T., Barr, A., Gaumont-Guay, D., Morgenstern, K., McCaughey, J., Nesic, Z., 2006, Response of Net Ecosystem Productivity of Three Boreal Forest Stands to Drought, Ecosystems, 9, 7, pp. 1128-1144.
- Kurz, W. A., Apps, M. J., 1999, A 70-year retrospective analysis of carbon fluxes in the Canadian Forest Sector Ecological Applications, 9, 2, pp. 526-547.
- Kurz, W. A., Stinson, G., Rampley, G. J., 2008, Could increased boreal forest ecosystem productivity offset carbon losses from increased disturbances, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society Biological Sciences, 363, pp. 2259-2268.
- Kurz, W. A., Stinson, G., Rampley, G. J., Dymond, C. C., Neilson, E. T., 2008, Risk of natural disturbances makes future contribution of Canada's forests to the global carbon cycle highly uncertain, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, 5, pp. 1551-1555.
- Kurz, W. A., Stinson, G., Rampley, G. J, 2009, Could increased borel forest ecosystem productivity offset carbon losses from increased disturbances. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society Biological Sciences 363, 2259-2268.
- Lafleur, B., Paré, D., Munson, A. D., Bergeron, Y., 2010, Response of northeastern North American forests to climate change : Will soil conditions constrain tree species migration ?, Environmental Reviews, 18, pp. 279-289.
- Laganière, J., Angers, D. A., Paré, D., Bergeron, Y., Chan, H. Y. H., 2011, Black spruce accumulate more uncomplexed organic matter than aspen sois, Soil Science Society of America, 75, 3.
- Lavoie, M., Paré, D., Bergeron, Y., 2005, Impact of global change and forest management on carbon sequestration in northern forested peatlands, Environmental Reviews, 13, pp. 199-240.
- Lavoie, M., Paré, D., Fenton, N., Groot, A., Taylor, K., 2005, Paludification and management of forested peatlands in Canada : a literature review, Environmental Reviews, 13, 2, pp. 21-50.
- Le Goff, H., Flannigan, M., Bergeron, Y., 2009, Potential changes in monthly fire risk in eastern Canadian boreal forest under future climate change, Canadian journal of forest research, 39, pp. 1-12.
- Le Goff, H., Flannigan, M., Bergeron, Y., Leduc, A., Gauthier, S., Logan, K., 2008. Des solutions d'aménagement pour faire face aux changements climatiques. Aménagement écosystémique en forêt boréale. M.-A. V. Sylvie Gauthier, Alain Leduc, Louis De Grandpré Daniel Kneeshaw, Hubert Morin, Pierre Drapeau et Yves Bergeron., Presses de l'Université du Québec. 109-135 p.
- Lecomte, N., Simard, M., Bergeron, Y., 2006, Effects of fire severity and initial tree composition on stand structural development in the coniferous boreal forest of northwestern Québec, Canada, Écosciences, 6, 2, pp. 152-163.
- Lesieur, D., Gauthier, S., Bergeron, Y., 2002, Fire frequency and vegetation dynamics for the south-central boreal forest of Quebec, Canada, Canadian journal of forest research, 32, pp. 1996-2009.
- Limpens, J., Berendse, F., Blodau, C., Canadell, J. G., Freeman, C., Holden, J., J., R., Rydin, H., Schaepman-Strub, G., 2008, Peatlands and the carbon cycle : from local processes to global implications- a synthesis, Biogeoscience, 5, pp. 1475-1491.
- Luyssaert, S., Inglima, I., Jung, M., Richardson, A. D., Reichstein, M., Papale, D., Piao, S. L., Schulze, E.-D., Wingate, L., Matteucci, G., et al., 2007, CO2 balance of boreal, temperate, and tropical forests derived from a global database, Global Change Biology, 13, 12, pp. 2509-2537.
- Mack, M. C., Bret-Harte, M. S., Hollingsworth, T. N., Jandt, R. R., Schuur, E. A. G., Shaver, G. R., Verbyla, D. L., 2011, Carbon loss from an unprecedented Arctic tundra wildfire, Nature, 475, 7357, pp. 489-492.
- Morin, H., Laprise, D., Simard, A.-A., Amouch, S., 2008. Régime des épidémies de la tordeuse des bourgeons de l'épinette dans l'est de l'Amérique du Nord. Aménagement écosystémique en forêt boréale. M.-A. V. Sylvie Gauthier, Alain Leduc, Louis De Grandpré Daniel Kneeshaw, Hubert Morin, Pierre Drapeau et Yves Bergeron., Presses de l'Université du Québec. 61-78 p.
- Nealis, V. G., Régnière, J., 2004, Insect-host relationships influencing disturbance by the spruce budworm in a boreal mixedwood forest, Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 34, pp. 1870-1882.
- Norby, R. J., Wullschleger, S. D., Gunderson, C. A., Johnson, D. W., Ceulemans, R., 1999, Tree responses to rising CO2 in field experiments : implications for the future forest. Plant, Cell and Environment, 22, pp. 683-714.
- Norby R. J., Warren, J. M., Iversen, C. M., Medlyn, B. E., McMurtriec, R. E., 2010, CO2 enhancement of forest productivity constrained by limited nitrogen availability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, pp. 19368-19373.
- O'ishi, R., Abe-Ouchi, A., Prentice, C. I., Stich, S., 2009, Vegetation dynamics and plant CO2 responses as positive feedback in a greenhouse world, Geophysical research letters, 36, pp. 1-5.
- O’ishi, R., Abe-Ouchi, A., 2009, Influence of dynamic vegetation on climate change arising from increasing CO2, Climate Dynamics, 33, 5, pp. 645-663.
- Payette, S., 2001. Les principaux types de tourbières. Ecologie des tourbières. S. Payette, L. Rochefort. Saite-Foy, Québec, Presse Univesité Laval. 39-89 p.
- Pechony, O., Shindell, D. T., 2010, Driving forces of global wildfires over the past millennium and the forthcoming century, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 45, pp. 19167-19170.
- Peng, C., Apps, M. J., 1999, Modelling the response of net primary productivity (NPP) of boreal forest ecosystems to changes in climate and fire disturbance regimes, Ecological Modelling, 122, 3, pp. 175-193.
- Plummer, D. A., Caya, D., Frigon, A., Côté, H., Giguere, M., Paquin, D., Biner, S., Harvey, R., de Elia, R., 2006, Climate and Climate Change over North America as Simulated by the Canadian RCM, Journal of Climate, 19, 13, pp. 3112-3132.
- Prescott, C. E., 2005. Decomposition and Mineralization of Nutrients from Litter and Humus. Nutrient Acquisition by Plants. H. BassiriRad. 15-41 p.
- Prescott, C. E., Maynard, D. G., Laiho, R., 2000, Humus in northern forests : friend or foe ?, Forest Ecology and Management, 133, 1-2, pp. 23-36.
- Ressources Naturelles Canada, 2007, L'Atlas du Canada, [En ligne] http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/francais/index.html.
- Rind, D., 1999, Complexity and Climate, Science, 284, 5411, pp. 105-107.
- Robinson, C. H., 2002, Controls on decomposition and soil nitrogen availability at high latitudes, Plant and Soil, 242, 1, pp. 65-81.
- Ruesch, A. et Gibbs, H. K., 2008. New IPCC Tier-1 Global Biomass Carbon Map For the Year 2000. Available online from the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center [http://cdiac.ornl.gov], Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
- Schwalm, C. R., Williams, C. A., Schaefer, K., Anderson, R., Arain, M. A., Baker, I., Barr, A., Black, T. A., Chen, G., Chen, J. M., Ciais, P., Davis, K. J., Desai, A., Dietze, M., Dragoni, D., Fischer, M. L., Flanagan, L. B., Grant, R., Gu, L., Hollinger, D., Izaurralde, R. C., Kucharik, C., Lafleur, P., Law, B. E., Li, L., Li, Z., Liu, S., Lokupitiya, E., Luo, Y., Ma, S., Margolis, H., Matamala, R., McCaughey, H., Monson, R. K., Oechel, W. C., Peng, C., Poulter, B., Price, D. T., Riciutto, D. M., Riley, W., Sahoo, A. K., Sprintsin, M., Sun, J., Tian, H., Tonitto, C., Verbeeck, H., Verma, S. B., 2010, A model-data intercomparison of CO2 exchange across North America : Results from the North American Carbon Program site synthesis, J. Geophys. Res., 115, pp. 1-22.
- Simard, M., Bernier, P., Bergeron, Y., Paré, D., Guérine, L., 2009, Paludification dynamics in the boreal forest of the James Bay lowlands : effect of time since fire and topography, Canadian journal of forest research, 39, 3, pp. 546-552.
- Simard, M., Lecomte, N., Bergeron, Y., Bernier, P., Paré, D., 2008. Une aménagement écosystémique de la pessière du nord de la ceinture d'argile québécoise. Gérer la forêt, mais surtout les sols. Aménagement écosystémique en forêt boréale. M.-A. V. Sylvie Gauthier, Alain Leduc, Louis De Grandpré Daniel Kneeshaw, Hubert Morin, Pierre Drapeau et Yves Bergeron., Presses de l'Université du Québec. 269-299 p.
- Smith, N. V., Saatchi, S. S., Randerson, J. T., 2004, Trends in high northern latitude soil freeze and thaw cycles from 1988 to 2002, Journal of Geophysical Research, 109.
- Turetsky, M. R., Kane, E. S., Harden, J. W., Ottmar, R. D., Manies, K. L., Hoy, E., Kasischke, E. S., 2011, Recent acceleration of biomass burning and carbon losses in Alaskan forests and peatlands, Nature Geosci, 4, 1, pp. 27-31.
- Van Bellen, S., Garneau, M., Bergeron, Y., 2010, Impact of climate change on forest fire severity and consequences stocks in boreal forest stands of Quebec Quebec, Canada : A synthesis, Fire Ecology 6, 3, pp. 16-44.
- Volney, W. J. A., Fleming, R. A., 2000, Climate change and impacts of boreal forest insects, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 82, 1-3, pp. 283-294.
- Weber, M. G., Flannigan, M. D., 1997, Canadian boreal forest ecosystem structure and function in a changing climate : impact on fire regimes, Environmental Review, 5, 3-4, pp. 145-166.
- Welp, L. R., Randerson, J. T., Liu, H. P., 2007, The sensitivity of carbon fluxes to spring warming and summer drought depends on plant functional type in boreal forest ecosystems, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 147, 3-4, pp. 172-185.
- Wickland, K., Neff, J., 2008, Decomposition of soil organic matter from boreal black spruce forest : environmental and chemical controls, Biogeochemistry, 87, 1, pp. 29-47.