Abstracts
Résumé
Les résultats d’un programme de recherche écosystémique, mené dans le Parc Marin Saguenay–Saint-Laurent, sont résumés pour comprendre les processus fondamentaux responsables de l’existence de ce site traditionnel d’alimentation des baleines, découvert par les baleiniers basques il y a 450 ans. Un ensemble de processus pérennes maintient les proies des baleines agrégées à la tête du chenal principal du plateau continental de l’est du Canada. Quel est-il ?
Cette région est le site de la plus riche agrégation de krill documentée à ce jour pour le nord-ouest Atlantique. Les mécanismes responsables sont le pompage, la rétention et la concentration du krill adulte provenant du golfe du Saint‑Laurent par l’énergique circulation estuarienne du Saint‑Laurent. Les courants de marée remontant le long des talus des chenaux et des bancs sous-marins interagissent avec le comportement vertical du krill adulte et le concentrent. Ce processus est plus intense à la tête des chenaux où l’« upwelling » d’origine tidale (remontée d’eau profonde due à la marée) est amplifié. Il est rehaussé par endroits par l’« upwelling » côtier dû au vent. La circulation moyenne transporte les riches essaims de krill le long des rebords des bassins. À l’embouchure de l’estuaire, le krill, concentré à la marge de la grande gyre cyclonique (tourbillon anti-horaire) d’Anticosti, est injecté dans l’estuaire maritime du côté nord, lorsque les conditions de circulation sont favorables. L’étroit courant de talus remontant l’estuaire l’emporte alors vers la zone d’agrégation de krill du parc marin. Des poissons pélagiques fourragers, tel le capelan, se concentrent aussi à la tête du chenal et à l’entrée du fjord sous l’action de l’« upwelling », des courants de marée et des fronts, qui aussi concentrent et augmentent la disponibilité de leurs proies. Ils contribuent à nourrir les baleines et les oiseaux marins.
Des caractéristiques océanographiques spéciales, rarement réunies ailleurs, se combinent dans le parc marin pour créer ce site d’alimentation des baleines. Les pressions anthropiques et les changements climatiques sont les principales menaces à sa préservation pour les prochains siècles.
Mots clés:
- site d’alimentation des baleines,
- habitat critique,
- tête de chenal,
- canyon,
- « upwelling »,
- courants,
- estuaire
Abstract
The results from an ecosystem research program are summarized. It was conducted in the Saguenay–St. Lawrence Marine Park to understand the basic processes responsible for the existence of this traditional whale feeding ground, discovered by the Basques whalers 450 years ago. Persistent processes maintain aggregated whale preys at the head of the main deep-water channel of eastern Canada continental shelf. What are they?
This site is the richest krill aggregation yet documented in the northwest Atlantic. The mechanisms responsible are the pumping, retention and concentration of adult krill from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, by the strong estuarine circulation of the St. Lawrence. Tidal currents upwelling along channels and bank slopes combine with adult krill vertical behavior and concentrate it. This process is more intense at the head of the channels where tidal upwelling is amplified. It is locally enhanced by wind-driven coastal upwelling. The mean circulation transports the rich krill patches along the slopes of the basins. At the mouth of the estuary, the concentrated krill at the margin of the large cyclonic Anticosti gyre (counterclockwise) is injected into the lower estuary on the northern side, under favorable circulation conditions. The narrow slope current flowing upstream along the estuary then imports it towards the Marine Park krill aggregation zone. Pelagic forage fish such as capelin also aggregate at the channel head and entrance of the fjord under the action of the tidal upwelling currents and fronts, which also concentrate and enhance the availability of their preys. They contribute to the feeding of whales and sea birds.
Special oceanographic features, seldom found elsewhere, combine in the Marine Park to generate this whale feeding ground. Anthropogenic pressures and climate change are the main threats to its preservation for the next centuries.
Keywords:
- whale feeding ground,
- critical habitat,
- ecosystem hot spot,
- channel head,
- canyon,
- upwelling,
- currents,
- estuary
Appendices
Références
- ACEVEDO-GUTIÉRREZ A., D.A. CROLL et B.R. TERSHY (2002). High feeding cost limits dive time in the largest whales. J. Exp. Biol., 205, 1747-1753.10.1139/f77-271 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BAILEY R.F.J., K.W. ABLE et W.C. LEGGETT (1977). Seasonal and vertical distribution and growth of juvenile and adult capelin (Mallotus villosus) in the St. Lawrence estuary and western Gulf of St. Lawrence. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 34, 2030‑2040.10.1139/f77-271 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BANKS R.E. (1966). The cold layer in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. J. Geophys. Res., 71, 1603-1610.10.1029/JZ071i006p01603 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BAUMGARTNER M.F., T.V.N. COLE, P.J. CLAPHAM et B.R. MATE (2003). North Atlantic right whale habitat in the lower Bay of Fundy and on the SW Scotian Shelf during 1999–2001. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 264, 137‑154.10.3354/meps264137 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BENOIT D., Y. SIMARD et L. FORTIER (2008). Hydro-acoustic detection of large winter aggregations of Arctic cod (Boreogadus saida) at depth in ice-covered Franklin Bay (Beaufort Sea). J. Geophys. Res., 113, C06S90, .10.1357/002224005775247599 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BERKES F. (1976). Ecology of euphausiids in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 33, 1894-1905.10.1139/f76-242 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BOURGAULT D., D.E. KELLEY et P.S. GALBRAITH (2005). Interfacial solitary wave run-up in the St. Lawrence Estuary. J. Mar. Res., 63, 1001-1015.10.1357/002224005775247599 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BOURGAULT D. et V.G. KOUTITONSKY (1999). Real‑time monitoring of the freshwater discharge at the head of the St. Lawrence Estuary. Atmos. Ocean., 37, 203‑220.10.1080/07055900.1999.9649626 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BOURGAULT D., F.J. SAUCIER et C.A. LIN (2001). Shear instability in the St. Lawrence Estuary, Canada: A comparison of fine-scale observations and estuarine circulation model results. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 9393-9409.10.1029/2000JC900165 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BRODIE P.F., D.D. SAMEOTO et R.W. SHELDON (1978). Population densities of euphausiids off Nova Scotia as indicated by net samples, whale stomach contents, and sonar. Limnol. Oceanogr., 23, 1264-1267.10.4319/lo.1978.23.6.1264 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BRUNEL P. (1970). Les grandes divisions du Saint‑Laurent : 3e commentaire. Revue Geogr. Montréal, 24, 291-294.10.3354/meps288199 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BRUNEL P., L. BOSSÉ et G. LAMARCHE (1998). Catalogue des invertébrés marins de l’estuaire et du golfe du Saint‑Laurent. Publ. spéc. can. sci. halieut. aquat., No 126, 405 p.10.3354/meps289117 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BUDGEN G.L. (1991). Changes in the temperature‑salinity characteristics of the deeper waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence over the past several decades. Dans : The Gulf of St. Lawrence: Small Ocean or Big Estuary?Therriault, J.C. (Éditeur). Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 113, pp. 139‑147.10.3354/meps302103 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- CARSCADDEN J.E. et H. VILHJÁLMSSON (2002). Capelin - what are they good for? Introduction. ICES J. Mar. Sci., 59, 863-869.10.1006/jmsc.2002.1283 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- COCHRANE N.A., D.D. SAMEOTO et A.W. HERMAN (2000). Scotian shelf euphausiid and silver hake population changes during 1984-1996 measured by multi-frequency acoustics. ICES J. Mar. Sci., 57, 122-132.10.1006/jmsc.1999.0563 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- COTTÉ C. et Y. SIMARD (2005). The formation of rich krill patches under tidal forcing at whale feeding ground hot spots in the St. Lawrence Estuary. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser., 288, 199-210.10.3354/meps288199 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- CROLL D.A., B. MARINOVIC, S. BENSON, F.P. CHAVEZ, N. BLACK, R. TERNULLO et B.R. TERSHY (2005). From wind to whales: trophic links in a coastal upwelling system. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 289, 117-130.10.3354/meps289117 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- DE LAFONTAINE Y., S. DEMERS et J. RUNGE (1991). Pelagic food web interactions and productivity in the Gulf of St. Lawrence: A perspective. Dans : The Gulf of St. Lawrence: small ocean or big estuary?Therriault, J.C. (Éditeur). Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 113, pp. 99-123.10.3354/cr029209 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- DEMER D., A.M. COSSIO, J. RENFREE et C.S. REISS (2008). CCAMLR 2000 revisited. CCAMLR Sci., (sous presse).10.1016/0278-4343(94)00053-P Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- DESCROIX A., M. HARVEY, S. ROY et P. GALBRAITH (2005). Macrozooplankton community patterns driven by water circulation in the St. Lawrence marine system, Canada. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 302, 103-119.10.3354/meps302103 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- DUNBAR M.J. (1964). Serial atlas of the marine environment. Folio 6, Euphausids and pelagic amphipods: distribution in North Atlantic and Arctic waters. American Geographical Society, New York, NY, USA.10.1139/f82-045 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- EL-SABH M.I. (1979). The lower St. Lawrence Estuary as a physical oceanographic system. Nat. Can., 106, 55-73.10.1139/f00-138 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- EL-SABH M.I. et N. SILVERBERG (Éditeurs) (1990). Oceanography of a large-scale estuarine system: the St. Lawrence. Coastal Estuarine Stud. No. 39. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, USA, 434 p.10.1029/CE039 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- FORRESTER W.D. 1974. Internal tides in the St. Lawrence Estuary. J. Mar. Res., 32, 55-66.10.1016/0278-4343(94)00058-U Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- GALBRAITH P.S. (2006). Winter water masses in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. J. Geophys. Res., 111, C06022, .10.1139/cjfas-54-9-2080 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- GILBERT D. et B. PETTIGREW (1997). Interannual variability (1948-1994) of the CIL core temperature in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 54, 57-67.10.1139/f99-117 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- GILBERT D., B. SUNDBY, C. GOBEIL, A. MUCCI et G.H. TREMBLAY (2005). A seventy-two-year record of diminishing deep-water oxygen in the St. Lawrence Estuary: The northwest Atlantic connection. Limnol. Oceanogr., 50, 1654-1666.10.4319/lo.2005.50.5.1654 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- GOUVERNEMENT DU CANADA (1997). Loi sur le parc marin du Saguenay–Saint-Laurent. Chapitre 37, sanctionnée le 10 décembre 1997.10.3354/meps279033 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- GRATTON Y., G. MERTZ et J.A. GAGNÉ (1988.) Satellite observations of tidal upwelling and mixing in the St. Lawrence Estuary. J. Geophys. Res., 93, 6947-6954.10.1029/JC093iC06p06947 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- HARVEY M. et L. DEVINE (2007). Conditions océanogra-phiques dans l’estuaire et le golfe du Saint‑Laurent en 2006 : zooplancton. Pêches et Océans Canada, Secrétariat canadien de consultation scientifique. Doc. rech. 2007/049. disponible à http://www.dfo-mpo.gv.ca/csas.10.1139/f01-006 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- INGRAM R.G. (1976). Characteristics of a tide-induced estuarine front. J. Geophys. Res., 81, 1951-1959.10.1029/JC081i012p01951 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- INGRAM R.G. (1979). Water mass modification in the St. Lawrence Estuary. Nat. Can., 106, 45-54.10.1139/f02-039 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- INGRAM R.G. (1983). Vertical mixing at the head of the Laurentian trough. Nat. Can., 112, 31-38.10.1046/j.1365-2419.1999.00095.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- INGRAM R.G. (1985). Frontal characteristics at the head of the Laurentian trough. Nat. Can., 112, 31-38.10.1139/f76-084 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- INGRAM R.G. et M.I. EL-SABH (1990). Fronts and mesoscale features in the St. Lawrence Estuary. Dans : Oceanography of a Large-Scale Estuarine System: The St. Lawrence. EL‑SABH, M.I. et N. SILVERBERG (Éditeurs). Coastal Estuarine Stud. No. 39, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, USA, pp. 71-93.10.1139/f80-087 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- JOHNSTON D.W., A.S. FRIEDLAENDER, L.G. TORRES et D.M. LAVIGNE (2005). Variation in sea ice cover on the east coast of Canada from 1969 to 2002: climate variability and implications for harp and hooded seals. Clim. Res., 29, 209-222.10.3354/cr029209 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- KAWAMURA A. (1980). A review of food of balaenopterid whales. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. Tokyo, 32, 155-197.10.1080/07055900.2000.9649658 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- KENNEY R.D., H.E. WINN et M.C. MACAULAY (1995). Cetaceans in the Great South Channel, 1979-1989: Right whale (Eubalaena glacialis). Cont. Shelf Res., 15, 385-414.10.1016/0278-4343(94)00053-P Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- KINGSLEY M.C.S. et R.R. REEVES (1998). Aerial surveys of cetaceans in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1995 and 1996. Can. J. Zool., 76, 1529-1550.10.1139/z98-054 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- KOUTITONSKY V.G. et G.L. BUDGEN (1991). The physical oceanography of the Gulf of St. Lawrence: A review with emphasis on the synoptic variability of the motion. Dans : The Gulf of St. Lawrence: Small Ocean or Big Estuary? THERRIAULT, J.C, (Éditeur). Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 113, pp. 57-90.10.1007/BF00397575 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- KULKA D.W., S. COREY et T.D. ILES (1982). Community structure and biomass of euphausiids in the Bay of Fundy. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 39, 326-334.10.1139/f82-045 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- LACROIX G. (1961). Les migrations verticales journalières des euphausides à l’entrée de la baie des Chaleurs. Nat. Can., 88, 257-317.10.1139/f01-210 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- LAVIGUEUR L., M.O. HAMMIL et S. ASSELIN (1993). Distribution et biologie des phoques et autres mammifères marins dans la région du parc marin du Saguenay. Rapp. man. Can. Sci. Halieut. Aquat. No 2220, 40 pp.10.1139/f89-160 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- LAVOIE D., Y. SIMARD, J. BENOIT, P. LAROUCHE et B. THIBEAULT (1996). Distribution des masses d’eau à la tête du Laurentien dans l’estuaire du Saint-Laurent aux étés 1994 et 1995. Rapp. tech. Can. Hydrogr. Sci. Océan., No 176, 126 pp.10.1016/S0990-7440(03)00026-3 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- LAVOIE D., Y. SIMARD et F.J. SAUCIER (2000). Aggrega-tion and dispersion of krill at channel heads and shelf edges: the dynamics in the Saguenay–St. Lawrence Marine Park. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 57, 1853-1869.10.1139/f00-138 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- LE FOUEST V., B. ZAKARDJIAN, F.J. SAUCIER et M. STARR (2005). Seasonal versus synoptic variability in planktonic production in a high-latitude marginal sea: The Gulf of St. Lawrence (Canada). J. Geophys. Res., 110, C09012, .10.1139/f76-326 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- LIE H. J. et M.I. EL-SABH (1983). Formation of eddies and transverse currents in a two-layer channel of variable bottom with application to the lower St. Lawrence Estuary. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13, 1063-1075.10.1175/1520-0485(1983)013<1063:FOEATC>2.0.CO;2 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- MACAULAY M.C., K.F. WISHNER et K.L. DALY (1995). Acoustic scattering from zooplankton and micronekton in relation to a whale feeding site near Georges Bank and Cape Cod. Cont. Shelf. Res., 15, 509-537.10.1016/0278-4343(94)00058-U Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- MACKAS D.L., R. KIESER, M. SAUNDERS, D.R. YELLAND, R.M. BROWN et D.F. MOORE (1997). Aggregation of euphausiids and Pacific hake (Merluccius productus) along the outer continental shelf off Vancouver Island. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 54, 2080-2096.10.1139/cjfas-54-9-2080 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- MARCHAND C., Y. SIMARD et Y. GRATTON (1999). Concentration of capelin in tidal upwelling fronts at the head of the Laurentian channel in the St. Lawrence Estuary. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 56, 1832-1848.10.1139/f99-117 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- MAUCHLINE J. (1980). The biology of mysids and euphausiids. Adv. Mar. Biol., 18, 1-681.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- MELLINGER D.K, S.L. NIEUKIRK, H. MATSUMOTO, S.L. HEIMLICH, R.P. DZIAK, J. HAXEL et M. FOWLER (2007). Seasonal occurrence of North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) vocalizations at two sites on the Scotian Shelf. Mar. Mamm. Sci., 23, 856-867.10.1111/j.1748-7692.2007.00144.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- MÉNARD N. (1998). Répartition spatiale et structure des bancs de poissons pélagiques dans une aire d’alimentation des cétacés de l’estuaire du Saint-Laurent. Mémoire de Maîtrise, Univ. Laval, Québec, Canada, 123 p.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- MERTZ G. et Y. GRATTON (1990). Topographic waves and topographically induced motion in the St. Lawrence Estuary. Dans : Oceanography of a Large-Scale Estuarine System: The St. Lawrence. EL-SABH, M.I. et N. SILVERBERG (Éditeurs), Coastal Estuarine Stud. 39, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, USA, pp. 94-108.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- MICHAUD R. et J. GIARD (1998). Les rorquals communs et les activités d’observation en mer des cétacés dans l’estuaire maritime du Saint-Laurent en 1994‑1996. 2 : Évaluation de l’impact des activités d’observation en mer sur le comportement des rorquals communs. Rapport final à Parcs Canada, Ottawa. GREMM, 108 de la Cale Sèche, Tadoussac, Québec, Canada G0T 2A0.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- MUNRO J., D. GAUTHIER et J.-A. GAGNÉ (1998). Description d’une frayère de hareng (Clupea harengus L.) à l’île aux Lièvres, dans l’estuaire moyen du Saint-Laurent. Rapp. Tech. Can. Sci. Halieut. Aquat., No 2239, 34 p.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- NEMOTO T. (1970). Feeding pattern of baleen whales in the ocean. Dans : Marine food chains. STEELE, J.H. (Éditeur). University of California Press, Berkeley, USA, pp. 241‑252.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- PALKA D.L. (2006). Summer abundance estimates of cetaceans in US North Atlantic navy operating areas. NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Science Center Reference Document 06-03.10.1029/2005JC003159 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- PÊCHES ET OCÉANS CANADA (1997). Atlas des courants de marée : Estuaire du Saint-Laurent du Cap de Bon-Désir à Trois-Rivières. Pêches et Océans Canada, Ottawa, Ont., 108 p.10.1139/f96-160 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- PLOURDE J. et J.-C. THERRIAULT (2004). Climate variability and vertical advection of nitrates in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 279, 33-43.10.3354/meps279033 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- PLOURDE S., J.J. DODSON, J.A. RUNGE et J.‑C. THERRIAULT (2002). Spatial and temporal variations in copepod community structure in the lower St. Lawrence Estuary, Canada. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 230, 211-224.10.3354/meps230211 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- PLOURDE S., P. JOLY, J.A. RUNGE, B. ZAKARDJIAN et J.J. DODSON (2001). Life cycle of Calanus finmarchicus in the Lower St. Lawrence Estuary: The imprint of circulation and late timing of the spring phytoplankton bloom. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 58, 647-658.10.1139/f01-006 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- PLOURDE S. et J.A. RUNGE (1993). Reproduction of the planktonic copepod Calanus finmarchicus in the lower St. Lawrence Estuary: relation to the cycle of phytoplankton production and evidence for a pump. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 102, 217-227.10.3354/meps102217 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- RINGUETTE M., J.A. RUNGE, M. CASTONGUAY et F. GRÉGOIRE (2002). Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) recruitment fluctuations in relation to copepod production and juvenile growth. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 59, 646-656.10.1139/f02-039 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- RUNGE J.A., M. CASTONGUAY, Y. DE LAFONTAINE, M. RINGUETTE et J.-L. BEAULIEU (1999). Covariation in climate, zooplankton biomass and mackerel recruitment in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Fish. Oceanogr., 8, 139-149.10.1046/j.1365-2419.1999.00095.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- RUNGE J.A. et Y. SIMARD (1990). Zooplankton of the St. Lawrence Estuary: The imprint of physical processes on its composition and distribution. Dans : Oceanography of a Large-scale Estuarine System: The St. Lawrence. EL‑SABH M.I. et N. SILVERBERG (Éditeurs). Coastal Estuarine Stud. No. 39, Springer-Verlag, NY, USA, pp. 297-320.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SAMEOTO D.D. (1976). Distribution of sound scattering layers caused by euphausiids and their relationship to chlorophyll A concentrations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence Estuary. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 33, 681-687.10.1139/f76-084 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SAMEOTO D.D. (1980). Quantitative measurements of euphausiids using a 120 kHz sounder and their in situ orientation. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 37, 693-702.10.1139/f80-087 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SAMEOTO D.D. (1983). Euphausiid distribution in acoustic scattering layers and its significance to surface swarms. J. Plankton Res., 5, 129-143.10.1093/plankt/5.2.129 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SAUCIER F.J. et J. CHASSÉ (2000). Tidal circulation and buoyancy effects in the St. Lawrence Estuary. Atmos. Ocean., 38, 505-556.10.1080/07055900.2000.9649658 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SAUCIER F.J., F. ROY, D. GILBERT, P. PELLERIN et H. RITCHIE (2003). Modelling the formation and circulation processes of water masses and sea ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 108 (C8): 3269, .10.1029/2004JC002423 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SAVENKOFF C., M. CASTONGUAY, A.F. VÉZINA, S.P. DESPATIE, D. CHABOT, L. MORISSETTE et M.O. HAMMILL (2004). Inverse modelling of trophic flows through an entire ecosystem: the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence in the mid-1980s. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 61, 2194-2214.10.1139/f04-154 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SIMARD Y., R. DE LADURANTAYE et J.-C. THERRIAULT (1986a). Aggregation of euphausiids along a coastal shelf in an upwelling environment. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 32, 203‑215.10.3354/meps032203 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SIMARD Y., G. LACROIX et L. LEGENDRE (1986b). Diel vertical migrations and nocturnal feeding of a dense coastal krill scattering layer (Thysanoessa raschi and Meganyctiphanes norvegica) in stratified surface waters. Mar. Biol., 91, 93‑105.10.1007/BF00397575 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SIMARD Y. et D. LAVOIE (1999). The rich krill aggregation of the Saguenay–St. Lawrence Marine Park: hydroacoustic and geostatistical biomass estimates, structure, variability and significance for whales. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 56, 1182-1197.10.1139/f99-063 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SIMARD Y., D. LAVOIE et F.J. SAUCIER (2002). Channel head dynamics: Capelin (Mallotus villosus) aggregation in the tidally-driven upwelling system of the Saguenay–St. Lawrence Marine Park whale feeding ground. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 59, 197-210.10.1139/f01-210 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SIMARD Y. et D. MACKAS (1989). Mesoscale aggregations of euphausiid sound scattering layers on the continental shelf of Vancouver Island. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 46, 1238-1249.10.1139/f89-160 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SIMARD Y., D. MARCOTTE et K. NARAGHI (2003). Three-dimensional acoustic mapping and simulation of krill distribution in the Saguenay–St. Laurence Marine Park whale feeding ground. Aquat. Living Res., 16, 137‑144.10.1016/S0990-7440(03)00026-3 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SIMMONDS E.J. et D.N. MACLENNAN 2005. Fisheries Acoustics: theory and practice. Blackwell Science, Oxford. 352 p.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SMITH G.C., F.J. SAUCIER et D. STRAUB (2006). Formation and circulation of the cold intermediate layer in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. J. Geophys. Res., 111, C0611, doi: 10.1029/2005JC003017.10.1029/CE039p0296 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SOURISSEAU M., Y. SIMARD et F.‑J. SAUCIER (2006). Krill aggregation in the St. Lawrence system, and supply of krill to the whale feeding grounds in the estuary from the Gulf. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser., 314, 257-270.10.3354/meps314257 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SOURISSEAU M., Y. SIMARD, Y. et F.-J. SAUCIER (2008). Krill diel vertical migration fine dynamics, nocturnal overturns and their roles for aggregation in stratified flows. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 65, 574-587.10.1002/9780470995303 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- THERRIAULT J.C. (Éditeur) (1991). Le Golfe du Saint‑Laurent : petit océan ou grand estuaire ? Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 113, 359 p.10.1029/2005JC003017 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- THERRIAULT J.-C. et G. LACROIX (1976). Nutrients, chlorophyll, and internal tides in the St. Lawrence Estuary. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 33, 2747-2757.10.1139/f76-326 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- THERRIAULT J.-C., L. LEGENDRE et S. DEMERS (1990). Oceanography and ecology of phytoplankton in the St. Lawrence Estuary. Dans : Oceanography of a Large-scale Estuarine System: The St. Lawrence. EL-SABH, M.I. et N. SILVERBERG (Éditeurs). Coastal Estuarine Stud., No. 39, Springer-Verlag, NY, USA, pp. 269-295.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- THERRIAULT J.-C. et M. LEVASSEUR (1985). Control of phytoplankton production in the lower St. Lawrence Estuary. Light and freshwater runoff. Nat. Can., 112, 211-222.10.1029/CE039p0269 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- TURGEON L. (1994). Les migrations des baleines franches boréales dans l’estuaire du Saint-Laurent. L’Euskarien, 16, 44-47.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- ZAKARDJIAN B.A., J.A. RUNGE, S. PLOURDE et Y. GRATTON (1999). A biophysical model of the interaction between vertical migration of crustacean zooplankton and circulation in the Lower St. Lawrence Estuary. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 56, 2420-2432.10.1139/f99-095 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- ZAKARDJIAN B., J. SHENG, J.A. RUNGE, I. MCLAREN, S. PLOURDE, K.R. THOMPSON et Y. GRATTON (2003). Effect of temperature and circulation on the population dynamics of Calanus finmarchicus in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Scotian Shelf: Study with a coupled, three-dimensional hydrodynamic, stage-based life history model. J. Geophys. Res., 108(C11), 8016, .10.1029/2002JC001410 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar