ror.org/0161xgx34
Abstracts
Résumé
L’épilepsie est un désordre neurologique souvent infantile associé à des comorbidités qui impliquent des troubles cognitifs. Depuis quelques années, les études des chercheurs suggèrent que la qualité de vie des personnes atteintes d’épilepsie est plus sévèrement impactée par les comorbidités associées à la maladie que par les crises. Il importe donc de diminuer la sévérité des troubles cognitifs chez les personnes épileptiques. Dans cet article, nous relevons les hypothèses de la littérature actuelle qui stipulent que le stress pourrait être un facteur affectant négativement le développement cognitif des enfants épileptiques. Ainsi, nous décrivons les atteintes neuropsychologiques inhérentes aux syndromes convulsifs, la relation biologique du stress et la relation entre le stress et les syndromes convulsifs. Deux modes d’action, évoqués par les chercheurs, par lesquels le stress serait un facteur aggravant les comorbidités des personnes qui présentent un syndrome convulsif seront aussi décrits.
Mots-clés :
- épilepsie,
- convulsions,
- stress,
- anxiété,
- hippocampe
Abstract
Epilepsy is a neurodevelopmental disorder with an onset that occurs mainly during childhood, and is linked to life-long cognitive deficits. Recent findings suggest that comorbidities have a strong impact on quality of life in epileptic patients. In this article, we suggest that stress could negatively influence the cognitive development in children suffering from epilepsy. The aim of this article is to present two complementary and cumulative explanations regarding the link between stress and cognitive development in epileptic children and to review the current knowledge regarding them.
Keywords:
- epilepsy,
- seizure,
- stress,
- anxiety,
- hippocampus
Appendices
Bibliographie
- Abrahams, S., Morris, R. G., Polkey, C. E., Jarosz, J. M., Cox, T. C. S., Graves, M., et al. (1999). Hippocampal involvement in spatial and working memory: a structural MRI analysis of patients with unilateral mesial temporal lobe sclerosis. Brain and Cognition, 41(1), 39-65.
- Abrahams, S., Pickering, A., Polkey, C. E., & Morris, R. G. (1997). Spatial memory deficits in patients with unilateral damage to the right hippocampal formation. Neuropsychologia, 35(1), 11-24.
- Akanuma, N., Hara, E., Adachi, N., Hara, K., & Koutroumanidis, M. (2008). Psychiatric comorbidity in adult patients with idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior, 13(1), 248-251.
- Almaguer-Melian, W., Bergado-Rosado, J., Pavón-Fuentes, N., Alberti-Amador, E., Mercerón-Martínez, D., & Frey, J. U. (2012). Novelty exposure overcomes foot shock-induced spatial-memory impairment by processes of synaptic-tagging in rats. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(3), 953-958.
- American Academy of Pediatrics. (2011). Neurodiagnostic evaluation of the child with a simple febrile seizure. Pediatrics, 127(2), 389-394.
- Andersen, S. L. (2003). Trajectories of brain development: point of vulnerability or window of opportunity? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 27(1-2), 3-18.
- Arnsten, A. F. (2009). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 410-422.
- Baram, T. Z., & Hatalski, C. G. (1998). Neuropeptide-mediated excitability: a key triggering mechanism for seizure generation in the developing brain. Trends in Neurosciences, 21(11), 471-476.
- Baram, T. Z., & Schultz, L. (1991). Corticotropin-releasing hormone is a rapid and potent convulsant in the infant rat. Developmental Brain Research, 61(1), 97-101.
- Bell, B., Lin, J. J., Seidenberg, M., & Hermann, B. (2011). The neurobiology of cognitive disorders in temporal lobe epilepsy. Nature Reviews Neurology, 7(3), 154-164.
- Blair, C., Granger, D. A., Willoughby, M., Mills-Koonce, R., Cox, M., Greenberg, M. T., et al. (2011). Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood. Child Development, 82(6), 1970-1984.
- Brabcová, D., Zárubová, J., Kohout, J., Jošt, J., & Kršek, P. (2015). Effect of learning disabilities on academic self-concept in children with epilepsy and on their quality of life. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 45-46, 120-128.
- Bugental, D. B., Schwartz, A., & Lynch, C. (2010). Effects of an early family intervention on children's memory: the mediating effects of cortisol levels. Mind, Brain, and Education, 4(4), 159-170.
- Butts, K. A., Weinberg, J., Young, A. H., & Phillips, A. G. (2011). Glucocorticoid receptors in the prefrontal cortex regulate stress-evoked dopamine efflux and aspects of executive function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(45), 18459-18464.
- Calabrese, V. P., Gruemer, H. D., Tripathi, H. L., Dewey, W., Fortner, C. A., & DeLorenzo, R. J. (1993). Serum cortisol and cerebrospinal fluid β-endorphins in status epilepticus: their possible relation to prognosis. Archives of Neurology, 50(7), 689-693.
- Camfield, C., Camfield, P., Smith, B., Gordon, K., & Dooley, J. (1993). Biologic factors as predictors of social outcome of epilepsy in intellectually normal children: a population-based study. The Journal of Pediatrics, 122(6), 869-873.
- Chang, C.-C., Lui, C.-C., Lee, C.-C., Chen, S.-D., Chang, W.-N., Lu, C.-H., et al. (2012). Clinical significance of serological biomarkers and neuropsychological performances in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. BMC Neurology, 12(1), 15.
- Chang, Y. P. (2014). Evidence for adverse effect of perinatal glucocorticoid use on the developing brain. Korean Journal of Pediatrics, 57(3), 101-109.
- Conrad, C. D., Galea, L. A. M., Kuroda, Y., & McEwen, B. S. (1996). Chronic stress impairs rat spatial memory on the Y maze, and this effect is blocked by tianeptine treatment. Behavioral Neuroscience, 110(6), 1321-1334.
- da Silva Sousa, P., Lin, K., Garzon, E., Sakamoto, A. C., & Yacubian, E. M. T. (2005). Self-perception of factors that precipitate or inhibit seizures in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Seizure, 14(5), 340-346.
- De Kloet, E. R., Vreugdenhil, E., Oitzl, M. S., & Joels, M. (1998). Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease. Endocrine Reviews, 19(3), 269-301.
- de Quervain, D. J. F., Roozendaal, B., Nitsch, R. M., McGaugh, J. L., & Hock, C. (2000). Acute cortisone administration impairs retrieval of long-term declarative memory in humans. Nature Neuroscience, 3(4), 313-314.
- Desgent, S., Duss, S., Sanon, N. T., Lema, P., Lévesque, M., Hébert, D., et al. (2012). Early-life stress is associated with gender-based vulnerability to epileptogenesis in rat pups. PloS One, 7(8), e42622.
- Diamond, D. M., Campbell, A. M., Park, C. R., Halonen, J., & Zoladz, P. R. (2007). The temporal dynamics model of emotional memory processing: a synthesis on the neurobiological basis of stress-induced amnesia, flashbulb and traumatic memories, and the Yerkes-Dodson law. Neural Plasticity.
- Diamond, D. M., Campbell, A. M., Park, C. R., Woodson, J. C., Conrad, C. D., Bachstetter, A. D., et al. (2006). Influence of predator stress on the consolidation versus retrieval of long-term spatial memory and hippocampal spinogenesis. Hippocampus, 16(7), 571-576.
- Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2002). Acute stressors and cortisol reactivity: a meta-analytic review. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64(1), 105-105.
- Edwards, H. E., Dortok, D., Tam, J., Won, D., & Burnham, W. M. (2002). Prenatal stress alters seizure thresholds and the development of kindled seizures in infant and adult rats. Hormones and Behavior, 42(4), 437-447.
- Ehlers, C. L., Henriksen, S. J., Wang, M., Rivier, J., Vale, W., & Bloom, F. E. (1983). Corticotropin releasing factor produces increases in brain excitability and convulsive seizures in rats. Brain Research, 278(1-2), 332-336.
- Ehlers, C. L., & Killam, E. K. (1979). The influence of cortisone on EEG and seizure activity in the baboon Papio papio. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 47(4), 404-410.
- Ekinci, O., Titus, J. B., Rodopman, A. A., Berkem, M., & Trevathan, E. (2009). Depression and anxiety in children and adolescents with epilepsy: prevalence, risk factors, and treatment. Epilepsy & Behavior, 14(1), 8-18.
- Elger, C. E., Helmstaedter, C., & Kurthen, M. (2004). Chronic epilepsy and cognition. The Lancet Neurology, 3(11), 663-672.
- Farrow, T. F. D., Dickson, J. M., & Grünewald, R. A. (2006). A six-year follow-up MRI study of complicated early childhood convulsion. Pediatric Neurology, 35(4), 257-260. doi: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2006.04.002
- Feldman, R. G., & Paul, N. L. (1976). Identity of emotional triggers in epilepsy. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 162(5), 345-353.
- Fisher, R. S., Acevedo, C., Arzimanoglou, A., Bogacz, A., Cross, J. H., Elger, C. E., et al. (2014). Définition clinique pratique de l’épilepsie. Epilepsia, 55(4), 475-482.
- Frucht, M. M., Quigg, M., Schwaner, C., & Fountain, N. B. (2000). Distribution of seizure precipitants among epilepsy syndromes. Epilepsia, 41(12), 1534-1539.
- Frye, C. A., & Bayon, L. E. (1999). Prenatal stress reduces the effectiveness of the neurosteroid 3α, 5α-THP to block kainic-acid-induced seizures. Developmental Psychobiology, 34(3), 227-234.
- Gaitatzis, A., Carroll, K., Majeed, A., & Sander, J. W. (2004). The epidemiology of the comorbidity of epilepsy in the general population. Epilepsia, 45(12), 1613-1622.
- Galimberti, C. A., Magri, F., Copello, F., Arbasino, C., Cravello, L., Casu, M., et al. (2005). Seizure frequency and cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) levels in women with epilepsy receiving antiepileptic drug treatment. Epilepsia, 46(4), 517-523.
- Gallagher, B. B. (1987). Endocrine abnormalities in human temporal lobe epilepsy. The Yale journal of Biology and Medicine, 60(2), 93-97.
- Gallagher, B. B., Murvin, A., Flanigin, H. F., King, D. W., & Luney, D. (1984). Pituitary and adrenal function in epileptic patients. Epilepsia, 25(6), 683-689.
- Gould, E., McEwen, B. S., Tanapat, P., Galea, L. A. M., & Fuchs, E. (1997). Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the adult tree shrew is regulated by psychosocial stress and NMDA receptor activation. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17(7), 2492-2498.
- Gould, E., Tanapat, P., McEwen, B. S., Flügge, G., & Fuchs, E. (1998). Proliferation of granule cell precursors in the dentate gyrus of adult monkeys is diminished by stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95(6), 3168-3171.
- Gould, E., Tanapat, P., Rydel, T., & Hastings, N. (2000). Regulation of hippocampal neurogenesis in adulthood. Biological Psychiatry, 48(8), 715-720.
- Grünewald, R. A., Farrow, T., Vaughan, P., Rittey, C. D., & Mundy, J. (2001). A magnetic resonance study of complicated early childhood convulsion. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 71(5), 638-642.
- Hauser, W. A. (1994). The prevalence and incidence of convulsive disorders in children. Epilepsia, 35(s2), S1-S6.
- Haut, S. R., Hall, C. B., Masur, J., & Lipton, R. B. (2007). Seizure occurrence : precipitants and prediction. Neurology, 69(20), 1905-1910.
- Haut, S. R., Vouyiouklis, M., & Shinnar, S. (2003). Stress and epilepsy: a patient perception survey. Epilepsy & Behavior, 4(5), 511-514.
- Healy, D. J., & Drugan, R. C. (1996). Escapable stress modulates retention of spatial learning in rats: preliminary evidence for involvement of neurosteroids. Psychobiology, 24(2), 110-117.
- Helmstaedter, C., & Kockelmann, E. (2006). Cognitive outcomes in patients with chronic temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia, 47(s2), 96-98.
- Helmstaedter, C., Kurthen, M., Lux, S., Reuber, M., & Elger, C. E. (2003). Chronic epilepsy and cognition: a longitudinal study in temporal lobe epilepsy. Annals of Neurology, 54(4), 425-432.
- Hermann, B. P., Seidenberg, M., Dow, C., Jones, J., Rutecki, P., Bhattacharya, A., et al. (2006). Cognitive prognosis in chronic temporal lobe epilepsy. Annals of Neurology, 60(1), 80-87.
- Hesdorffer, D. C., Benn, E. K. T., Bagiella, E., Nordli, D., Pellock, J., Hinton, V., et al. (2011). Distribution of febrile seizure duration and associations with development. Annals of Neurology, 70(1), 93-100.
- Holmes, A., & Wellman, C. L. (2009). Stress-induced prefrontal reorganization and executive dysfunction in rodents. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 33(6), 773-783.
- Huang, L.-T., Holmes, G. L., Lai, M.-C., Hung, P.-L., Wang, C.-L., Wang, T.-J., et al. (2002). Maternal deprivation stress exacerbates cognitive deficits in immature rats with recurrent seizures. Epilepsia, 43(10), 1141-1148.
- Jobe, P. C. (2003). Common pathogenic mechanisms between depression and epilepsy: an experimental perspective. Epilepsy & Behavior, 4(S3), 14-24.
- Karst, H., De Kloet, E. R., & Joëls, M. (1999). Episodic corticosterone treatment accelerates kindling epileptogenesis and triggers long-term changes in hippocampal CA1 cells, in the fully kindled state. European Journal of Neuroscience, 11(3), 889-898.
- King, S., & Laplante, D. P. (2005). The effects of prenatal maternal stress on children's cognitive development: Project Ice Storm. Stress: The International Journal on the Biology of Stress, 8(1), 35-45.
- Koe, A. S., Salzberg, M. R., Morris, M. J., O’Brien, T. J., & Jones, N. C. (2014). Early life maternal separation stress augmentation of limbic epileptogenesis: The role of corticosterone and HPA axis programming. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 42, 124-133.
- Kofman, O. (2002). The role of prenatal stress in the etiology of developmental behavioural disorders. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 26(4), 457-470.
- Kumar, G., Jones, N. C., Morris, M. J., Rees, S., O’Brien, T. J., & Salzberg, M. R. (2011). Early life stress enhancement of limbic epileptogenesis in adult rats: mechanistic insights. PLoS One, 6(9), e24033.
- Lai, M.-C., Holmes, G. L., Lee, K.-H., Yang, S.-N., Wang, C.-A., Wu, C.-L., et al. (2006). Effect of neonatal isolation on outcome following neonatal seizures in rats-the role of corticosterone. Epilepsy Research, 68(2), 123-136.
- Lai, M.-C., Yang, S.-N., & Huang, L.-T. (2008). Neonatal isolation enhances anxiety-like behavior following early-life seizure in rats. Pediatrics & Neonatology, 49(2), 19-25.
- Laplante, D. P., Barr, R. G., Brunet, A., Galbaud Du Fort, G., Meaney, M. L., Saucier, J.-F., et al. (2004). Stress during pregnancy affects general intellectual and language functioning in human toddlers. Pediatric Research, 56(3), 400-410.
- Lee, P. H. K., Grimes, L., & Hong, J. S. (1989). Glucocorticoids potentiate kainic acid-induced seizures and wet dog shakes. Brain Research, 480(1-2), 322-325.
- Leussis, M. P., & Heinrichs, S. C. (2009). Quality of rearing guides expression of behavioral and neural seizure phenotypes in El mice. Brain Research, 1260, 84-93.
- Lippé, S., Roy, M.-S., Arcand, C., Scantlebury, M. H., Carmant, L., & Lassonde, M. (2009). Altered EEG spectral activity and attentional behavioral deficits following prolonged febrile seizures: a pilot study. Epileptic Disorders, 11(1), 10-19. doi: 10.1684/epd.2009.0246
- Luine, V., Villegas, M., Martinez, C., & McEwen, B. S. (1994). Repeated stress causes reversible impairments of spatial memory performance. Brain Research, 639(1), 167-170.
- Lupien, S. J., de Leon, M., de Santi, S., Convit, A., Tarshish, C., Nair, N. P. V., et al. (1998). Cortisol levels during human aging predict hippocampal atrophy and memory deficits. Nature Neuroscience, 1(1), 69-73.
- Lupien, S. J., Fiocco, A., Wan, N., Maheu, F., Lord, C., Schramek, T., et al. (2005). Stress hormones and human memory function across the lifespan. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(3), 225-242. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2004.08.003
- Lupien, S. J., & Lepage, M. (2001). Stress, memory, and the hippocampus: can't live with it, can't live without it. Behavioral Brain Research, 127(1-2), 137-158.
- Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 434-445.
- Magariños, A. M., Verdugo, J. M., & McEwen, B. S. (1997). Chronic stress alters synaptic terminal structure in hippocampus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 94(25), 14002-14008.
- Marques, C. M., Caboclo, L. O. S. F., da Silva, T. I., da Silva Noffs, M. H., Carrete, H. Jr., Lin, K., et al. (2007). Cognitive decline in temporal lobe epilepsy due to unilateral hippocampal sclerosis. Epilepsy & Behavior, 10(3), 477-485 doi: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2007.02.002
- Marrosu, F., Fratta, W., Carcangiu, P., Giagheddu, M., & Gessa, G. L. (1988). Localized epileptiform activity induced by murine CRF in rats. Epilepsia, 29(4), 369-373.
- Martinos, M. M., Yoong, M., Patil, S., Chin, R. F. M., Neville, B. G., Scott, R. C., et al. (2012). Recognition memory is impaired in children after prolonged febrile seizures. Brain, 135(10), 3153-3164.
- Mason, J. W. (1968). A review of psychoendocrine research on the pituitary-adrenal cortical system. Psychosomatic Medicine, 30(5), 576-607.
- Matsumoto, K., Nomura, H., Murakami, Y., Taki, K., Takahata, H., & Watanabe, H. (2003). Long-term social isolation enhances picrotoxin seizure susceptibility in mice: up-regulatory role of endogenous brain allopregnanolone in GABAergic systems. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 75(4), 831-835.
- McEwen, B. S., Albeck, D., Cameron, H., Chao, H. M., Gould, E., Hastings, N., et al. (1995). Stress and the brain: a paradoxical role for adrenal steroids. Vitamins & Hormones, 51, 371-402.
- Mulder, E. J. H., Robles De Medina, P. G., Huizink, A. C., Van den Bergh, B. R. H., Buitelaar, J. K., & Visser, G. H. A. (2002). Prenatal maternal stress: effects on pregnancy and the (unborn) child. Early Human Development, 70(1-2), 3-14.
- Nakken, K. O., Solaas, M. H., Kjeldsen, M. J., Friis, M. L., Pellock, J. M., & Corey, L. A. (2005). Which seizure-precipitating factors do patients with epilepsy most frequently report? Epilepsy & Behavior, 6(1), 85-89.
- Nelson, K. B., & Ellenberg, J. H. (1976). Predictors of epilepsy in children who have experienced febrile seizures. New England Journal of Medicine, 295(19), 1029-1033.
- Oguz, A., Kurul, S., Dirik, E., & Eylül, D. (2002). Relationship of epilepsy-related factors to anxiety and depression scores in epileptic children. Journal of Child Neurology, 17(1), 37-40.
- Oken, B. S., Fonareva, I., & Wahbeh, H. (2011). Stress-related cognitive dysfunction in dementia caregivers. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 24(4), 191-198.
- Oostrom, K. J., Smeets-Schouten, A., Kruitwagen, C. L. J. J., Peters, A. C. B., & Jennekens-Schinkel, A. (2003). Not only a matter of epilepsy: early problems of cognition and behavior in children with “epilepsy only”—a prospective, longitudinal, controlled study starting at diagnosis. Pediatrics, 112(6), 1338-1344.
- Oyegbile, T. O., Dow, C., Jones, J., Bell, B., Rutecki, P., Sheth, R., et al. (2004). The nature and course of neuropsychological morbidity in chronic temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology, 62(10), 1736-1742.
- Park, C. R., Campbell, A. M., & Diamond, D. M. (2001). Chronic psychosocial stress impairs learning and memory and increases sensitivity to yohimbine in adult rats. Biological Psychiatry, 50(12), 994-1004.
- Payne, J., Jackson, E., Ryan, L., Hoscheidt, S., Jacobs, J., & Nadel, L. (2006). The impact of stress on neutral and emotional aspects of episodic memory. Memory, 14(1), 1-16.
- Qulu, L., Daniels, W. M. U., & Mabandla, M. V. (2012). Exposure to prenatal stress enhances the development of seizures in young rats. Metabolic Brain Disease, 27(3), 399-404.
- Rausch, R., & Babb, T. L. (1993). Hippocampal neuron loss and memory scores before and after temporal lobe surgery for epilepsy. Archives of Neurology, 50(8), 812-817.
- Roozendaal, B., Griffith, Q. K., Buranday, J., de Quervain, D. J.-F., & McGaugh, J. L. (2003). The hippocampus mediates glucocorticoid-induced impairment of spatial memory retrieval: dependence on the basolateral amygdala. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(3), 1328-1333.
- Roy, H., Lippé, S., Lussier, F., Sauerwein, H. C., Lortie, A., Lacroix, J., et al. (2011). Developmental outcome after a single episode of status epilepticus. Epilepsy & Behavior, 21(4), 430-436.
- Russ, S. A., Larson, K., & Halfon, N. (2012). A national profile of childhood epilepsy and seizure disorder. Pediatrics, 129(2), 256-264.
- Rutter, M., Graham, P. J., & Yule, W. (1970). A neuropsychiatric study in childhood. Londres : Heinemann Educational Books.
- Saboory, E., Ahmadzadeh, R., & Roshan-Milani, S. (2011). Prenatal exposure to restraint or predator stresses attenuates field excitatory postsynaptic potentials in infant rats. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 29(8), 827-831. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2011.09.001
- Salzberg, M., Kumar, G., Supit, L., Jones, N. C., Morris, M. J., Rees, S., et al. (2007). Early postnatal stress confers enduring vulnerability to limbic epileptogenesis. Epilepsia, 48(11), 2079-2085.
- Sandi, C. (2013). Stress and cognition. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 4(3), 245-261.
- Sawyer, N. T., & Escayg, A. (2010). Stress and epilepsy: multiple models, multiple outcomes. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 27(6), 445-452.
- Schmid-Schönbein, C. (1998). Improvement of seizure control by psychological methods in patients with intractable epilepsies. Seizure, 7(4), 261-270.
- Schridde, U., & van Luijtelaar, G. (2004). Corticosterone increases spike-wave discharges in a dose-and time-dependent manner in WAG/Rij rats. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 78(2), 369-375.
- Schwabe, L., Bohringer, A., Chatterjee, M., & Schachinger, H. (2008). Effects of pre-learning stress on memory for neutral, positive and negative words: Different roles of cortisol and autonomic arousal. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 90(1), 44-53.
- Scott, R. C. (2009). Status epilepticus in the developing brain: Long-term effects seen in humans. Epilepsia, 50(S12), 32-33.
- Scotti, A. L., Bollag, O., & Nitsch, C. (1998). Seizure patterns of Mongolian gerbils subjected to a prolonged weekly test schedule: evidence for a kindling-like phenomenon in the adult population. Epilepsia, 39(6), 567-576.
- Shackleton, D. P., Trenité, D. G. A. K.-N., De Craen, A. J. M., Vandenbroucke, J. P., & Westendorp, R. G. J. (2003). Living with epilepsy: Long-term prognosis and psychosocial outcomes. Neurology, 61(1), 64-70.
- Smeets, T., Otgaar, H., Candel, I., & Wolf, O. T. (2008). True or false? Memory is differentially affected by stress-induced cortisol elevations and sympathetic activity at consolidation and retrieval. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33(10), 1378-1386.
- Song, L., Che, W., Min-Wei, W., Murakami, Y., & Matsumoto, K. (2006). Impairment of the spatial learning and memory induced by learned helplessness and chronic mild stress. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 83(2), 186-193.
- Spector, S., Cull, C., & Goldstein, L. H. (2000). Seizure precipitants and perceived self-control of seizures in adults with poorly-controlled epilepsy. Epilepsy Research, 38(2-3), 207-216.
- Sperling, M. R., Schilling, C. A., Glosser, D., Tracy, J. I., & Asadi-Pooya, A. A. (2008). Self-perception of seizure precipitants and their relation to anxiety level, depression, and health locus of control in epilepsy. Seizure, 17(4), 302-307.
- Strine, T. W., Kobau, R., Chapman, D. P., Thurman, D. J., Price, P., & Balluz, L. S. (2005). Psychological distress, comorbidities, and health behaviors among U.S. adults with seizures: results from the 2002 National Health Interview Survey. Epilepsia, 46(7), 1133-1139.
- Taher, T. R., Salzberg, M., Morris, M. J., Rees, S., & O’Brien, T. J. (2005). Chronic low-dose corticosterone supplementation enhances acquired epileptogenesis in the rat amygdala kindling model of TLE. Neuropsychopharmacology, 30(9), 1610-1616. doi: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300709
- Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and Semantic Memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Éds), Organization of memory (p. 381-403). New York, NY: Academic Press.
- Verity, C. M., Ross, E. M., & Golding, J. (1993). Outcome of childhood status epilepticus and lengthy febrile convulsions: findings of national cohort study. British Medical Journal, 307(6898), 225-228.
- Warren, D. A., Castro, C. A., Rudy, J. W., & Maier, S. F. (1991). No spatial learning impairment following exposure to inescapable shock. Psychobiology, 19(2), 127-134.
- Weerda, R., Muehlhan, M., Wolf, O. T., & Thiel, C. M. (2010). Effects of acute psychosocial stress on working memory related brain activity in men. Human Brain Mapping, 31(9), 1418-1429.
- Weiss, G. K., Castillo, N., & Fernandez, M. (1993). Amygdala kindling rate is altered in rats with a deficit in the responsiveness of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. Neuroscience Letters, 157(1), 91-94.
- Weiss, S. R. B., Post, R. M., Gold, P. W., Chrousos, G., Sullivan, T. L., Walker, D., & Pert, A. (1986). CRF-induced seizures and behavior: interaction with amygdala kindling. Brain Research, 372(2), 345-351.
- Wiebe, S. (2000). Epidemiology of temporal lobe epilepsy. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 27(S1), S6-S10.
- Williams, J., Steel, C., Sharp, G. B., DelosReyes, E., Phillips, T., Bates, S., et al. (2003). Anxiety in children with epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior, 4(6), 729-732.
- Zoladz, P. R., Clark, B., Warnecke, A., Smith, L., Tabar, J., & Talbot, J. N. (2011). Pre-learning stress differentially affects long-term memory for emotional words, depending on temporal proximity to the learning experience. Physiology & Behavior, 103(5), 467-476.