Abstracts
Abstract
During the COVID-19 pandemic, young children faced a shift to online education due to social isolation rules, resulting in increased time spent in front of digital screens. Even before the pandemic, the World Health Organization had recommended limiting screen time for young children as extended screen exposure was becoming more common with the increased prevalence of digital tools. This study aimed to examine the status of young children’s screen time during the COVID-19 pandemic and explore the factors influencing it, encompassing child, parent, and environmental dynamics. Through a large-scale online survey, 1,346 parents with children aged 2 to 6 from all 81 provinces of Türkiye participated in the research. Hierarchical linear regression analysis revealed that age, digital device ownership, parental screen time, and mediation strategies were positively associated with children’s screen time, while higher parental income, education, and engagement in dramatic play were negatively correlated. These findings underscore the importance of targeted interventions to achieve a healthier degree of screen usage among young children. Policymakers can play a role in raising awareness about limiting both parent and child screen time and promoting screen-free activities within the home environment, thereby contributing to improving the balance between screen usage and other activities among young children as society moves beyond the pandemic.
Keywords:
- screen time,
- parental mediation,
- young children,
- parent–child activities
Appendices
Bibliography
- Altun, D. (2022). Family ecology as a context for children’s executive function development: The home literacy environment, play, and screen time. Child Indicators Research, 15, 1465–14881. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-022-09920-w
- American College of Pediatricians (2020). The impact of media use and screen time on children, adolescents, and families. https://acpeds.org/position-statements/media-use-and-screen-time-its-impact-on-children-adolescents-and-families
- Barkin, S., Ip, E., Richardson, I., Klinepeter, S., Finch, S., & Krcmar, M. (2006). Parental media mediation styles for children aged 2 to 11 years. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160(4), 395–401. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.160.4.395
- Behnamnia, N., Kamsin, A., &Ismail, M. A. B. (2020). The landscape of research on the use of digital game-based learning apps to nurture creativity among young children: A review. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 37, Article 100666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100666
- Benedetto, L., & Ingrassia, M. (2021). Digital parenting: Raising and protecting children in media world. In L. Benedetto & M. Ingrassia (Eds.), Parenting: Studies by an ecocultural and transactional perspective (pp. 127–148). IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92579
- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1995). Developmental ecology through space and time: A future perspective. In P. Moen, G. H. Elder, Jr., & K. Lüscher (Eds.), Examining lives in context: Perspectives on the ecology of human development (pp. 619–647). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10176-018
- Budak, K. S. (2020). Okul öncesi dönem çocukları için Dijital Oyun Bağımlılık Eğilimi ölçeğinin ve Dijital Oyun Ebeveyn Rehberlik Stratejileri ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi, problem davranışlarla ilişkisinin incelenmesi [Development of the Digital Game Addiction Tendency scale and the Digital Game Parental Mediation scale for preschool children: An investigation of their relationship with problem behaviors; Master’s thesis, Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü]. https://gcris.pau.edu.tr/bitstream/11499/35100/3/Kadriye%20Selin%20Budak_10341505.pdf
- Budak, K. S. & Işıkoğlu, N. (2022). Dijital Oyun Bağimlilik Eğilimi ve Ebeveyn Rehberlik Stratejileri ölçeklerinin geliştirilmesi [Development of Children’s Digital Play Addiction Tendency and Parental Mediation scales]. Ankara University Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences (JFES), 55(3), 693–740. https://doi.org/10.30964/auebfd.939653
- Buijzen, M., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2005). Parental mediation of undesired advertising effects. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 49(2), 153–165. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4902_1
- Büyüköztürk, Ş., Kılıç Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş., & Demirel, F. (2015). Eğitimde bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri (19. Baskı) [Scientific research methods in education (19th Edition)]. Pegem Academy.
- Carson, V., & Janssen, I. (2012). Associations between factors within the home setting and screen time among children aged 0–5 years: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 12(1), Article 159. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-539
- Chan, K., & McNeal, J. U. (2003). Parental concern about television viewing and children’s advertising in China. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 15(2), 151–166. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/15.2.151
- Christakis, D. A. (2009). The effects of infant media usage: What do we know and what should we learn? Acta paediatrica, 98(1), 8–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.01027.x
- Connell, S. L., Lauricella, A. R., & Wartella, E. (2015). Parental co-use of media technology with their young children in the USA. Journal of Children and Media, 9(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2015.997440
- Crepax, T., & Mühlberg, J. T. (2022). Upgrading the protection of children from manipulative and addictive strategies in online games: Legal and technical solutions beyond privacy regulation. International Review of Information Ethics, 31(1), Article 480. https://doi.org/10.29173/irie480
- Çelik, E., Özer. Y., & Özcan, S. (2021). Screen time of preschool children in relation to their parents screen usage habits and family functions. Çukurova Medical Journal, 46(1), 343–351. https://doi.org/10.17826/cumj.780582
- Danby, S., Evaldsson, A.-C., Melander, H., & Aarsand, P. (2018). Situated collaboration and problem solving in young children’s digital gameplay. British Journal of Educational Technology, 49(5), 959–972. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12636
- Demirbaş, N. K., & Koçak, S. S. (2020). 2-6 yaş arasında çocuğu olan ebeveynlerin bakış açısıyla covid-19 salgın sürecinin değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of the Covid-19 pandemic period from the perspective of parents with children ages 2 to 6]. Eurasian Journal of Researches in Social and Economics (EJRSE), 7(6), 328–349.
- Detnakarintra, K., Trairatvorakul, P., Pruksananonda, C., & Chonchaiya, W. (2020). Positive mother‐child interactions and parenting styles were associated with lower screen time in early childhood. Acta Paediatrica, 109(4), 817–826. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.15007
- Dietz, W. H., Jr., & Gortmaker, S. L. (1985). Do we fatten our children at the television set? Obesity and television viewing in children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 75(5), 807–812.
- Ding, K., & Li, H. (2023). Digital addiction intervention for children and adolescents: A scoping review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(6), Article 4777. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064777
- Donohue, C. (Ed.). (2016). Family engagement in the digital age: Early childhood educators as media mentors. Routledge.
- Eales, L., Gillespie, S., Alstat, R. A., Ferguson, G. M., & Carlson, S. M. (2021). Children’s screen and problematic media use in the United States before and during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Child Development, 92(5), e866–e882. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13652
- Eastin, M. S., Greenberg, B. S., & Hofschire, L. (2006). Parenting the internet. Journal of Communication, 56(3), 486–504. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00297.x
- Ferguson, C. J., & Beresin, E. (2017). Social science’s curious war with pop culture and how it was lost: The media violence debate and the risks it holds for social science. Preventive Medicine, 99, 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.02.009
- Fletcher, E. N., Whitaker R. C., Marino A. J., & Anderson, S. E. (2014). Screen time at home and school among low-income children attending Head Start. Child Indicators Research, 7, 421–436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-013-9212-8
- Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., & Borg, W. R. (2006). Educational research: An introduction (8th ed.). Allyn and Bacon.
- Garbe, A., Ogurlu, U., Logan, N., & Cook, P. (2020). COVID-19 and remote learning: Experiences of parents with children during the pandemic. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 4(3), 45–65. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8471
- Gözüm, A. İ. C., & Kandır, A. (2021). Digital games pre-schoolers play: Parental mediation and examination of educational content. Education and Information Technologies, 26(3), 3293–3326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10382-2
- Güzen, M. (2021). Covid-19 pandemi oncesi ve pandemi sürecinde 4-6 yaş cocuklarının dijital oyun bağımlılık eğilimleri ve ebeveyn rehberlik stratejilerinde görülen farklılıkların incelenmesi [Examination of digital play addiction tendencies and differences in parental mediation of 4-6 years old children during pre-COVID-19 and pandemic period; Master’s thesis, Pamukkale University Institute of Educational Sciences].
- Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2009). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Prentice Hall.
- Heider, K. & Jalongo, M. R. (Eds.) (2015). Young children and families in the information age: Applications of technology in early childhood education. Springer
- Hirsh-Pasek, K., Zosh, J. M., Golinkoff, R. M., Gray, J. H., Robb, M. B., & Kaufman, J. (2015). Putting education in “educational” apps: Lessons from the science of learning. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 16(1), 3–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100615569721
- Hofferth, S. L., & Sandberg, J. F. (2001). Changes in American children’s time, 1981–1997. Advances İn Life Course Research, 6, 193–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-2608(01)80011-3
- Işıkoğlu, N., & Ergenekon, E. (2021). Bebeklerin teknolojik araçlari kullanmalariyla ilgili anne görüşleri [Mothers’ views regarding babies’ usage of technological tools]. Ankara University Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences (JFES), 54(1), 117–140. https://doi.org/10.30964/auebfd.767338
- Işıkoğlu Erdoğan, N., Johnson, J. E., Dong, P. I., &. Qiu, Z. (2019). Do parents prefer digital play? Examination of parental preferences and beliefs in four nations. Early Childhood Education Journal, 47, 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-018-0901-2
- Johnson, G. M., & Puplampu, K. P. (2008). Internet use during childhood and the ecological techno-subsystem. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 34(1), Article 26428. https://doi.org/10.21432/T2CP4T
- Kağıtçıbaşı, Ç. (1996). Family and human development across cultures: A view from the other side. Lawrence Erlbaum.
- Kalaycı, Ş. (2016). SPSS uygulamalı çok değişkenli istatistik teknikleri [SPSS applied multivariate statistical techniques]. Asil Yayın Dağıtım.
- Karasar, N. (2013). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri [Scientific research method]. Nobel Publishing.
- Kaur, N., Gupta, M., Malhi, P., & Grover, S. (2019). Screen time in under-five children. Indian Pediatrics, 56(9), 773–788. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13312-019-1638-8
- Kharel, M., Sakamoto, J. L., Carandang, R. R., Ulambayar, S., Shibanuma, A., Yarotskaya, E. L., Basargina, M., & Jimba, M. (2022). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic lockdown on movement behaviours of children and adolescents: A systematic review. BMJ Global Health, 7(1), Article e007190.
- Kline, R. B. (2023). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (5th ed.). Guilford.
- Konca, A. S. (2021). Digital technology usage of young children: Screen time and families. Early Childhood Education Journal, 50, 1097–1108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-021-01245-7
- Koran, N., Berkmen, B. & Adalıer, A. (2022). Mobile technology usage in early childhood: Pre-COVID-19 and the national lockdown period in North Cyprus. Education and Information Technologies, 27, 321–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-1
- Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308
- Kucirkova, N., Messer, D., Sheehy, K., & Panadero, C. F. (2014). Children’s engagement with educational iPad apps: Insights from a Spanish classroom. Computers & Education, 71, 175–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.10.003
- Lau, E. Y. H., & Lee, K. (2021). Parents’ views on young children’s distance learning and screen time during COVID-19 class suspension in Hong Kong. Early Education and Development, 32(6), 863–880. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1843925
- Lauricella, A. R., Wartella, E., & Rideout, V. J. (2015). Young children’s screen time: The complex role of parent and child factors. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 36, 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.12.001
- Lee, H. E., Kim, J. Y., & Kim, C. (2022). The influence of parent media use, parent attitude on media, and parenting style on children’s media use. Children, 9(1), Article 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9010037
- Linder, L. K., McDaniel, B. T., Stockdale, L., & Coyne, S. M. (2021). The impact of parent and child media use on early parent–infant attachment. Infancy, 26(4), 551–569. https://doi.org/10.1111/infa.12400
- Livingstone, S., & Helsper, E. J. (2008). Parental mediation of children’s internet use. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 52(4), 581–599, https://doi.org/10.1080/08838150802437396
- Livingstone, S., Mascheroni, G., Dreier, M., Chaudron, S., & Lagae, K. (2015) How parents of young children manage digital devices at home: The role of income, education and parental style. EU Kids Online, LSE.
- Livingstone, S., Ólafsson, K., Helsper, E. J., Lupiáñez-Villanueva, F., Veltri, G. A., & Folkvord, F. (2017). Maximizing opportunities and minimizing risks for children online: The role of digital skills in emerging strategies of parental mediation. Journal of Communication, 67(1), 82–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12277
- Loprinzi, P. D., Schary, D. P., & Cardinal, B. J. (2013). Adherence to active play and electronic media guidelines in preschool children: Gender and parental education considerations. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 17(1), 56–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-012-0952-8
- Määttä, S., Kaukonen, R., Vepsäläinen, H., Lehto, E., Ylönen, A., Ray, C., Erkkola, M., & Roos, E. (2017). The mediating role of the home environment in relation to parental educational level and preschool children’s screen time: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 17, Article 688. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4694-9
- Madigan, S., Browne, D., Racine, N., Mori, C., & Tough, S. (2019). Association between screen time and children’s performance on a developmental screening test. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(3), 244–250. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.5056
- Mares, M.-L., & Pan, Z. (2013). Effects of Sesame Street: A meta-analysis of children’s learning in 15 countries. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 34(3), 140–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2013.01.001
- Marsh, J., & Bishop, J. C. (2014). Changing play: Play, media and commercial culture from the 1950s to the present day. Open University Press/McGrawHill.
- Marsh, J., Plowman, L., Yamada-Rice, D., Bishop, J., & Scott, F. (2020). Digital play: A new classification. In C. Stephen, L. Brooker, P. Oberhuemer, & R. Parker-Rees (Eds.), Digital Play and Technologies in the Early Years (pp. 20–31). Routledge.
- McHale, S. M., Crouter, A. C., & Tucker, C. J. (2001). Free‐time activities in middle childhood: Links with adjustment in early adolescence. Child Development, 72(6), 1764–1778. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00377
- Milosevic, T., Kuldas, S., Sargioti, A., Laffan, D. A., & O’Higgins Norman, J. (2022). Children’s internet use, self-reported life satisfaction, and parental mediation in Europe: An analysis of the EU Kids Online dataset. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 698176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.698176
- Molu, B., Baş, M. T., & Özpulat, F. (2022). The effect of digital screen exposure and temperament on sleep problems in children during the COVID-19 pandemic: Rural area in Turkey. Journal of Turkish Sleep Medicine, 9(2), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.4274/jtsm.galenos.2022.30306
- Navarro, J. L., & Tudge, J. R. H. (2022). Technologizing Bronfenbrenner: Neo-ecological theory. Current Psychology, 42, 19338–19354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02738-3
- Nevski, E., & Siibak, A. (2016). Mediation practices of parents and older siblings in guiding toddlers’ touchscreen technology use: An ethnographic case study. Media Education, 7(2), 320–340.
- Nikken, P., & Jansz, J. (2006). Parental mediation of children’s videogame playing: A comparison of the reports by parents and children. Learning, Media and Technology, 31(2), 181–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439880600756803
- Nikken, P., & Schols, M. (2015). How and why parents guide the media use of young children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(11), 3423–3435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0144-4
- Ofcom, U. K. (2020). Children and parents: Media use and attitudes report 2019. Office of Communications London. https://www.ofcom.org.uk/research-and-data/media-literacy-research/childrens/children-and-parents-media-use-and-attitudes-report-2019
- Oflu, A., Bükülmez, A., Elmas, E., Tahta, E. G., & Çeleğen, M. (2021). Comparison of screen time and digital gaming habits of Turkish children before and during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. Turkish Archives of Pediatrics, 56(1), 22–26. https://doi.org/10.14744/TurkPediatriArs.2020.41017
- Öztürk Eyimaya, A., & Irmak, A. Y. (2021). Relationship between parenting practices and children’s screen time during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Turkey. Journal Of Pediatric Nursing, 56, 24–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedn.2020.10.002
- Padilla‐Walker, L. M., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Combating conflicting messages of values: A closer look at parental strategies. Social Development, 14(2), 305–323. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2005.00303.x
- Papadakis, S., Zaranis, N., & Kalogiannakis, M. (2019). Parental involvement and attitudes towards young Greek children’s mobile usage. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 22, Article 100144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcci.2019.100144
- Poulain, T., Ludwig, J., Hiemisch, A., Hilbert, A., & Kiess, W. (2019). Media use of mothers, media use of children, and parent–child interaction are related to behavioral difficulties and strengths of children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(23), Article 4651. https://doi.org//10.3390/ijerph16234651
- Przybylski, A. K., & Weinstein, N. (2019). Digital screen time limits and young children’s psychological well‐being: Evidence from a population‐based study. Child Development, 90(1), e56–e65. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13007
- Radesky, J. S., & Christakis, D. A. (2016). Increased screen time: implications for early childhood development and behavior. Pediatric Clinics, 63(5), 827–839. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2016.06.006
- Radesky, J. S., Weeks, H. M., Ball, R., Schaller, A., Yeo, S., Durnez, J., Tamayo-Rios, M., Epstein, M., Kirkorian, H., Coyne, S., & Barr, R. (2020). Young children’s use of smartphones and tablets. Pediatrics, 146(1), Article e20193518. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-3518
- Ribner, A. D., Barr, R. F., & Nichols, D. L. (2021). Background media use is negatively related to language and literacy skills: Indirect effects of self-regulation. Pediatric Research, 89(6), 1523–1529. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-020-1004-5
- Ribner, A. D., & McHarg, G. (2021). Screens across the pond: Findings from longitudinal screen time research in the US and UK. Infant Behavior and Development, 63, Article 101551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2021.101551
- Rideout, V., & Robb, M. B. (2019). The Common Sense census: Media use by tweens and teens, 2019. Common Sense Media. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/the-common-sense-census-media-use-by-tweens-and-teens-2019
- Rideout, V., & Robb, M. B. (2020). The common sense census: Media use by kids age zero to eight, 2020. Common Sense Media. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/research/report/2020_zero_to_eight_census_final_web.pdf
- Robb, M. B. (2019). The new normal: Parents, teens, screens, and sleep in the United States. Common Sense Media. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/research/report/2019-new-normal-parents-teens-screens-and-sleep-united-states-report.pdf
- Stiglic, N., & Viner, R. M. (2019). Effects of screentime on the health and well-being of children and adolescents: A systematic review of reviews. BMJ Open, 9(1), Article e023191. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023191
- Şen, M., Demir, E., Teke, N. & Yılmaz, A. (2020). Erken çocukluk ebeveyn medya aracilik ölçeği geliştirme çalişmasi [Development of early childhood parental media mediation scale]. Mehmek Akif Ersoy University Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences, 53, 228–265. https://doi.org/10.21764/maeuefd.646852
- Şimşek, Z. C., Canbeldek, M., & Işıkoğlu, N. (2023). Ebeveynlerin pandemi sürecinde dijital ebeveynliğe yönelik deneyimleri [Experiences of parents with digital parenting applications during COVID-19 pandemic]. The Journal of Buca Faculty of Education., 55, 250–271. https://doi.org/10.53444/deubefd.1221315
- Tabachnick, B. G., Fidell, L. S., & Ullman, J. B. (2013). Using multivariate statistics. Pearson.
- Tudge, J. R. H., Navarro, J. L. Merçon-Vargas, E. A. & Payir, A. (2021) The promise and the practice of early childhood educare in the writings of Urie Bronfenbrenner. Early Child Development and Care, 191(8), 1079–1088. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2020.1844193
- TUIK. (2021). Adrese dayali nüfus kayit sistemi sonuçlari [Address-based population registration system results], 2021. https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Adrese-Dayali-Nufus-Kayit-Sistemi-Sonuclari-2021-45500
- Uzundağ, B. A., Oranç, C., Keşşafoğlu, D., & Altundal, M. N. (2022). How children in Turkey use digital media: Factors related to children, parents, and their home environment. In H. H. Şen, & H. Selin, (Eds.), Childhood in Turkey: Educational, sociological, and psychological perspectives (pp. 137–149). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08208-5_10
- Vandewater, E. A., & Lee, S.-J. (2009). Measuring children’s media use in the digital age: Issues and challenges. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(8), 1152–1176. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209331539
- Warren, R. (2005). Parental mediation of children’s television viewing in low-income families. Journal of Communication, 55(4), 847–863. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb03026.x
- Witt, A., Ordóñez, A., Martin, A., Vitiello, B., & Fegert, J. M. (2020). Child and adolescent mental health service provision and research during the Covid-19 pandemic: Challenges, opportunities, and a call for submissions. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 14(1), Article 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-020-00324-8
- World Health Organization. (2019). Guidelines on physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep for children under 5 years of age. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/311664
- Yalçın, S. S., Tezol, Ö., Çaylan, N., Nergiz, M. E., Yildiz, D., Çiçek, S., & Oflu, A. (2021). Evaluation of problematic screen exposure in pre-schoolers using a unique tool called “seven-in-seven screen exposure questionnaire”: cross-sectional study. BMC Pediatrics, 21, Article 472. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-021-02939-y
- Yeşilay. (2020). Covıd-19 salgını sonrası Türkiye’de bağımlılıklara ilişkin mevcut durum [Current situation regarding addictions in Türkiye after the COVID-19 pandemic]. https://www.yesilay.org.tr/tr/haberler/covid-19-salgini-sonrasi-turkiyede-bagimliliklara-iliskin-mevcut-durum
- Zhang, Z., Wiebe, S. A., Rahman, A. A., & Carson, V. (2022). Longitudinal associations of subjectively-measured physical activity and screen time with cognitive development in young children. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 22, Article 100447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2022.100447
- Zimmermann, L., Moser, A., Lee, H., Gerhardstein, P., & Barr, R. (2017). The ghost in the touchscreen: Social scaffolds promote learning by toddlers. Child Development, 88(6), 2013–2025. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12683