Abstracts
Résumé
L’objectif de la présente étude était d’évaluer l’effet d’une équipe mobile de médiation et d’intervention sociale sur la prise en charge des personnes en situation d’itinérance. L’équipe mobile a été mise en place afin d’offrir une alternative non judiciaire à la gestion des conflits en lien avec des enjeux de cohabitation ou d’utilisation de l’espace public. Pour atteindre notre objectif, nous avons utilisé des données administratives, collectées par un service policier et par l’organisme responsable de l’équipe mobile, afin de créer un groupe expérimental (n = 81) et un groupe témoin (n = 208). Nous avons apparié les observations des groupes expérimental et témoin sur la base de leur score de propension dans le but de reproduire les conditions d’un essai randomisé. Les résultats que nous avons obtenus indiquent que les transports vers l’hôpital sont moins fréquents lorsque l’équipe mobile intervient que lors d’interventions policières. Les résultats montrent aussi que les personnes ayant affaire avec l’équipe mobile ont plus de chances d’être dirigées vers des ressources communautaires, que si elles ont affaire avec les forces policières. Ainsi, les équipes mobiles, composées d’intervenants psychosociaux, semblent efficaces pour gérer les conflits impliquant des personnes en situation d’itinérance dans l’espace public.
Mots-clés :
- Police,
- vulnérabilité,
- équipes civiles,
- judiciarisation,
- itinérance
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a mobile social intervention and mediation team on the management of persons in a situation of homelessness. The team was implemented to offer a non-police response to the management of conflicts related to cohabitation or the use of public space. To meet the objective of the study, administrative data from a police service and the organization in charge of the mobile team were used to create control (n = 208) and experimental (n = 81) groups. Units in both groups were matched based on their propensity score to approach conditions of a randomized control trial. Results indicate that persons in a situation of homelessness were less likely to be transported to the hospital when their interventions were managed by the mobile team, rather than the police. Interventions by the mobile team were also associated with increased probabilities of being referred to community resources when compared to police interventions. Civilian teams made up of psychosocial workers thus appear as a promising measure for managing conflicts involving persons in situation of homelessness in the public space.
Keywords:
- Police,
- vulnerability,
- civilian teams,
- judicialization,
- homeless
Resumen
El objetivo de este estudio era evaluar el impacto de un equipo móvil de mediación e intervención social en la atención a personas en situación de calle. El equipo móvil fue creado para ofrecer una alternativa no judicial a la gestión de conflictos relacionados con cuestiones de convivencia o uso del espacio público. Para lograr nuestro objetivo, utilizamos datos administrativos, recopilados por un servicio de policía y por la organización responsable del equipo móvil, para crear un grupo experimental (n = 81) y un grupo de control (n = 208). Combinamos las observaciones de los grupos experimentales y de control en función de sus puntuaciones de propensión para replicar las condiciones de un ensayo aleatorio. Los resultados obtenidos indican que el transporte al hospital es menos frecuente cuando interviene el equipo móvil que durante las intervenciones policiales. Los resultados también muestran que las personas que entran en contacto con el equipo móvil tienen más probabilidades de ser derivadas a recursos comunitarios que aquellas que entran en contacto con la policía. Así, los equipos móviles, formados por trabajadores psicosociales, parecen ser eficaces en la gestión de los conflictos que involucran a personas en situación de calle en espacios públicos.
Palabras clave:
- Policía,
- vulnerabilidad,
- equipos civiles,
- judicialización,
- situación de calle
Appendices
Références
- Apel, R. J., et Sweeten, G. (2010). Propensity score matching in criminology and criminal justice. Dans A. R. Piquero et D. Weisburd (Dir.), Handbook of Quantitative Criminology (p. 543‑562). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-77650-7_26
- Batko, S., Gillespie, S., Ballard, K., Cunningham, M., Poppe, B., et Metraux, S. (2020). Alternatives to arrest and police responses to homelessness. Urban Institute. https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/103158/alternatives-to-arrests-and-police-responses-to-homelessness.pdf
- Becker, S. O., et Ichino, A. (2002). Estimation of average treatment effects based on propensity scores. The Stata Journal, 2(4), 358‑377. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X0200200403
- Bellot, C., et Sylvestre, M-E. (2017). Judiciarisation de l’itinérance à Montréal : les dérives sécuritaires de la gestion pénale de la pauvreté. Revue générale de droit, 47, 11-44.
- Blais, É., et Brisebois, D. (2021). Improving police responses to suicide-related emergencies : New evidence on the effectiveness of co-response police-mental health programs. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 51(6), 1095-1105.
- Blais, É., et Leclerc, B. (2023). A script analysis of successful police interventions involving individuals in crisis. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 65(3), 92-125.
- Blais, É., Landry, M., Elazhary, N., Carrier, S., et Savard, A-M. (2022a). Assessing the capability of a co-responding police-mental health program to connect emotionally disturbed people with community resources and decrease police use-of-force. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 18(1), 41-65.
- Blais, É., Jourdain, A., Gobeil, C., et Houde, J. (2022b). Évaluation de l’Équipe mobile de médiation et d’intervention sociale. Rapport rédigé pour la Ville de Montréal (inédit).
- Boivin, R. et Billette, I. (2012). Police et itinérance à Montréal : une analyse des constats d’infraction aux règlements municipaux, 2005-2009. Criminologie, 45(2), 249-276.
- Bolger, P. C. (2015). Just following orders : A meta-analysis of the correlates of American police officer use of force decisions. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 40(3), 466‑492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-014-9278-y
- Bouveng, O., Bengtsson, F. A. et Carlborg, A. (2017). First-year follow-up of the Psychiatric Emergency Response Team (PAM) in Stockholm county, Sweden : A descriptive study. International Journal of Mental Health, 46(2), 65‑73. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207411.2016.1264040
- Bradbury, J., Hutchinson, M., Hurley, J. et Stasa, H. (2017). Lived experience of involuntary transport under mental health legislation. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 26(6), 580‑592. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12284
- Brennan, A., Warren, N., Peterson, V., Hollander, Y., Boscarato, K. et Lee, S. (2016). Collaboration in crisis : Carer perspectives on police and mental health professional’s responses to mental health crises. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 25(5), 452‑461. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12233
- Bush, R.A.B. et Folger, J.P. (2004). The promise of mediation : The transformative approach of conflict. Wiley.
- Charette, Y., Crocker, A. G. et Billette, I. (2014). Police encounters involving citizens with mental illness : Use of resources and outcomes. Psychiatric Services, 65(4), 511‑516.
- Chen, H. T. (1990). Theory-driven evaluation : Conceptual framework, application and advancement. Springer.
- Compton, M. T., Bahora, M., Watson, A. C. et Oliva, J. R. (2008). A comprehensive review of extant research on Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) programs. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 36(1), 47‑55.
- Cordell, K. D. et Snowden, L. R. (2017). Reducing mental health emergency services for children served through California’s full service partnerships. Medical Care, 55(3), 299. https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0000000000000641
- Cotton, D. et Coleman, T. (2008). Contemporary policing guidelines for working with the mental health system. Police/Mental Health Subcommittee of the Canadian Association of Chiefs of Police (CACP) Human Resources Committee. https://www.cacp.ca/human-resources-and-learning-committee-activities.html ? asst_id=131
- Craven, K., Sapra, S., Harmon, J. et Hyde, M. (2022). “I’m no criminal, I’m just homeless” : The greensboro homeless union’s efforts to address the criminalization of homelessness. Journal of Community Psychology, 50(4), 1875‑1892. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22671
- Fendrich, M., Ives, M., Kurz, B., Becker, J., Vanderploeg, J., Bory, C., Lin, H.-J. et Plant, R. (2019). Impact of mobile crisis services on emergency department use among youths with behavioral health service needs. Psychiatric Services, 70(10), 881‑887. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201800450
- Fisher, W. H., Silver, E. et Wolff, N. (2006). Beyond criminalization : Toward a criminologically informed framework for mental health policy and services research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 33(5), 544‑557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-006-0072-0
- Gaudreault, M. (2023). La Ville de Montréal bonifie l’Équipe mobile de médiation et d’intervention sociale (ÉMMIS) [Communique de presse]. Consulté le 18 janvier 2023 : https://sds.social/wpcontent/uploads/2023/01/230118-Communique-Bonification-offres-de-service-EMMIS-VF-2.pdf.
- Jaccoud, M. (2009). Origines et fondements de la médiation sociale au Québec : Un double ancrage. Nouvelles pratiques sociales, 21(2), 93‑108. https://doi.org/10.7202/038964ar
- Jachimowski, K. G., Smathers, C. J., Smathers, L. N. et Lemmon, R. J. (2021). The impact of mental health resources on police officer action. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 36(2), 193‑203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-020-09395-x
- Jacobs, R. et Barrenho, E. (2011). Impact of crisis resolution and home treatment teams on psychiatric admissions in England. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 199(1), 71‑76. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.079830
- Jones, N., Gius, B., Shields, M., Florence, A., Collings, S., Green, K., Watson, A. et Munson, M. (2022). Youths’ and young adults’ experiences of police involvement during initiation of involuntary psychiatric holds and transport. Psychiatric Services, 73(8), 910‑917. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.202100263
- Kim, K., Choi, J. S., Choi, E., Nieman, C. L., Joo, J. H., Lin, F. R., Gitlin, L. N. et Han, H.-R. (2016). Effects of community-based health worker interventions to improve chronic disease management and care among vulnerable populations : A systematic review. American journal of public health, 106(4), e3‑e28.
- Lamanna, D., Shapiro, G. K., Kirst, M., Matheson, F. I., Nakhost, A. et Stergiopoulos, V. (2018). Co-responding police–mental health programmes : Service user experiences and outcomes in a large urban centre. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 27(2), 891‑900. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12384
- Lamb, H. R., Weinberger, L. E. et DeCuir Jr, W. J. (2002). The police and mental health. Psychiatric Services, 53(10), 1266‑1271.
- Landry, M., Blais, É., Elazhary, N., Carrier, S., Bouchard, J., et Savard, A-M. (2018). Évaluation de l’implantation et des effets d’une équipe mobile d’intervention psychosociale (ÉMIP) intervenant auprès de personnes en situation de crise sur le territoire de la Ville de Sherbrooke. Institut universitaire de première ligne en santé et services sociaux du Centre intégré universitaire de santé et de services sociaux de l’Estrie – Centre hospitalier universitaire de Sherbrooke.
- Lemieux, A. J., Leclair, M. C., Roy, L., Nicholls, T. L. et Crocker, A. G. (2020). A Typology of lifetime criminal justice involvement among homeless individuals with mental illness : Identifying needs to better target intervention. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 47(7), 790‑807. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854819900305
- Livingston, J. D., Desmarais, S. L., Verdun-Jones, S., Parent, R., Michalak, E. et Brink, J. (2014). Perceptions and experiences of people with mental illness regarding their interactions with police. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 37(4), 334‑340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2014.02.003
- Magee, L.A., Fortenberry, J.D., Rosenman, M., Aalsma, M.C., Gharbi, S. et Wiehe, S.E. (2021) Two-year prevalence rates of mental health and substance use disorder diagnoses among repeat arrestees. Health Justice, 9(2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40352-020-00126-2
- Marcus, N. et Stergiopoulos, V. (2022). Re-examining mental health crisis intervention : A rapid review comparing outcomes across police, co-responder and non-police models. Health et Social Care in the Community, 30(5), 1665‑1679. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.13731
- Matheson, F. I., Creatore, M. I., Gozdyra, P., Moineddin, R., Rourke, S. B. et Glazier, R.H. (2005). Assessment of police calls for suicidal behavior in a concentrated urban setting. Psychiatric Services, 56(12), 1606‑1609. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.56.12.1606
- Mayne, J. (2015). Useful theory of change models. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, 30(2), 119‑142.
- Mayne, J. (2019). Revisiting contribution analysis. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, 34(2).
- Moore, C.W. (2014). The mediation process : Practical strategies for resolving conflict. Wiley.
- Morabito, M.S., Kerr, A.N., Watson, A., Draine, J., Ottati, V. et Angell, B. (2012). Crisis intervention teams and people with mental illness : Exploring the factors that influence the use of force. Crime and Delinquency, 58(1), 57-77.
- Ouellet, G., Bernheim, E. et Morin, D. (2021). « VU » pour vulnérable : la police à l’assaut des problèmes sociaux. Champ Pénal, 24.
- Parker, A., Scantlebury, A., Booth, A., MacBryde, J.C., Scott, W.J., Wright, K., et McDaid, C. (2018). Interagency collaboration models for people with mental ill health in contact with the police : a systematic scoping review. BMJ.
- Pawson, R., et Tilley, N. (1997). Realistic evaluation. Sage.
- Pope, L. G., Patel, A., Fu, E., Zingman, M., Warnock, A., Ellis, S., Ashekun, O.,
- Watson,A., Wood, J. et Compton, M. T. (2023). Crisis response model preferences of mental health care clients with prior misdemeanor arrests and of their family and friends. Psychiatric Services, 74(11), 1163-1170. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.20220363
- Quirouette, M. (2023). Social triage and exclusions in community services for the criminalized. Social Problems. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spad035
- Quirouette, M., Beaulieu, K. et Spallanzani-Sarrasin, N. (2022). Gestion punitive de l’itinérance durant la pandémie : défis et stratégies des intervenants.e.s de première ligne à Montréal. Criminologie, 55(2), 93-120. https://doi.org/10.7202/1093866ar
- Raffestin, I. (2020). Les conceptions de l’injustice des personnes itinérants montréalaises judiciarisées. Sciences et Actions Sociales, 13, 1-15.DOI 10.3917/sas.013.0108
- Rosenbaum, P. R. et Rubin, D. B. (1983). The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika, 70(1), 41‑55. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/70.1.41
- Roy, L., Crocker, A. G., Nicholls, T. L., Latimer, E. A. et Ayllon, A. R. (2014). Criminal behavior and victimization among homeless individuals with severe mental illness : A systematic Review. Psychiatric Services, 65(6), 739‑750. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201200515
- Schucan Bird, K. et Shemilt, I. (2019). The crime, mental health, and economic impacts of prearrest diversion of people with mental health problems : A systematic review. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 29, 142-156
- Seo, C., Kim, B. et Kruis, N. E. (2021). A meta-analysis of police response models for handling people with mental illnesses : Cross-country evidence on the effectiveness. International criminal justice review, 31(2), 182‑202.
- Service de police de la Ville de Montréal (2018a). Profil de la criminalité. Poste de Quartier 21. Montréal.
- Service de police de la Ville de Montréal (2018b). Profil de la criminalité. Poste de Quartier 22. Montréal.
- Service de police de la Ville de Montréal (2018c). Profil de la criminalité. Poste de Quartier 22. Montréal.
- Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D. et Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Cengage Learning.
- Shapiro, G. K., Cusi, A., Kirst, M., O’Campo, P., Nakhost, A. et Stergiopoulos, V. (2015). Co-responding police-mental health programs : A review. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 606‑620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-014-0594-9
- Sullivan, A.A. (2023). What does it mean to be homeless ? How definitions affect homelessness policy. Urban Affairs Review, 59(3), 728-758.
- Taheri, S. A. (2016). Do crisis intervention teams reduce arrests and improve officer safety ? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 27(1), 76‑96. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403414556289
- Townley, G., Sand, K., Kindschuh, T., Brott, H. et Leickly, E. (2022). Engaging unhoused community members in the design of an alternative first responder program aimed at reducing the criminalization of homelessness. Journal of Community Psychology, 50(4), 2013‑2030. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22601
- Ville de Montréal. (s. d.). Équipe mobile de médiation et d’intervention sociale (ÉMMIS). Consulté le 15 mars 2024, à l’adresse : https://montreal.ca/articles/equipe-mobile-de-mediation-et-dintervention-sociale-emmis-20213
- Wacquant, L. (2009). Punishing the poor : The neoliberal government of social insecurity. Duke University Press.
- Watson, A. C., Morabito, M. S., Draine, J. et Ottati, V. (2008). Improving police response to persons with mental illness : A multi-level conceptualization of CIT. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 31(4), 359‑368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2008.06.004
- Westbrook, M. et Robinson, T. (2021). Unhealthy by design : Health et safety consequences of the criminalization of homelessness. Journal of Social Distress and Homelessness, 30(2), 107‑115. https://doi.org/10.1080/10530789.2020.1763573
- White Bird Clinic. (2020). Crisis assistance : Helping out on the streets. [Media Guide 2020]. https://whitebirdclinic.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/CAHOOTS-Media-Guide-20200626.pdf
- Wood, J. D. et Watson, A. C. (2017). Improving police interventions during mental health-related encounters : Past, present and future. Policing and Society, 27(3), 289‑299. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2016.1219734
- Wood, J. D., Watson, A. C. et Fulambarker, A. J. (2017). The “gray zone” of police work during mental health encounters : Findings from an observational study in Chicago. Police Quarterly, 20(1), 81‑105. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611116658875
- Yang, S-M., Gill, C.E., Lu, Y-F., Azam, M. et Kanewske, L. (2024). A police-clinician co-response team to people with mental illness in a suburban-rural community : A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-023-09603-8
- Yeager, K.R. et Robert, A.R. (2023). Bridging past and present to the future of crisis intervention and crisis management. Dans V. E. Cree et T McCulloch (dir.), Social Work (210-216). Routledge.
10.7202/1040516ar