Résumés
Abstract
I explore the relationship between social class and race, through an examination of how Black nurses enact Afropolitan cultural practices to negotiate contradictory class mobilities in Vancouver. While this paper reflexively draws from my family’s lived experiences to begin thinking through the nuances of Afropolitanism, I hone the discussion in contextual reference to the class-making practices of African-born nurses. The nurses channel Afropolitan class-making projects, through which they develop a flexibility and openness of mind that enables them to reject taking on the role of victim in their contradictory mobilities. Afropolitanism refers to “an expansive politics of inclusion that seeks to position actors as part of a transnational community of Africans of the world” (Adjepong 2021, 1), to “imbue Africanness with value” (137). Merging the literature on anti-Black racism in nursing with scholarship examining relationships between social class, race, and culture, this paper draws out the promises and pitfalls of Afropolitanism through an exploration of how African immigrant nurses—part of a growing Black Canadian middle class—grapple with contradictory mobility in Canada’s racialized terrain. It contributes to discussions of the Black middle class, in the context of a “relative newness of Black middle classes” (Rollock et al. 2012, 253).
Keywords:
- Black African immigrant nurses,
- Afropolitanism,
- cultural projects and class-making practices,
- contradictory mobilities,
- social class,
- race
Résumé
J’explore la relation entre la classe sociale et la race en examinant la manière dont les infirmières noires adoptent des pratiques culturelles afropolitaines pour négocier des mobilités de classe contradictoires à Vancouver. Bien que cet article s’inspire, selon une approche réflexive, des expériences vécues par ma famille pour commencer à envisager les nuances de l’afropolitanisme, j’affine la discussion en me référant aux pratiques de création de classe des infirmières d’origine africaine. Les infirmières canalisent les projets de création de classes afropolitaines, à partir desquels elles développent une flexibilité et une ouverture d’esprit qui leur permettent de rejeter le rôle de victime lors de leurs mobilités contradictoires. L’afropolitanisme se réfère à « une politique d’inclusion expansive qui cherche à positionner les acteurs comme faisant partie d’une communauté transnationale d’Africains du monde » (Adjepong 2021, 1), pour « conférer une valeur à l’africanité » (Ibid., 137). En combinant la littérature sur le racisme anti-Noir dans les soins infirmiers et les études sur les relations entre la classe sociale, la race et la culture, cet article met en évidence les possibilités et les obstacles de l’afropolitanisme, en explorant la façon dont les infirmières immigrantes africaines, qui font partie d’une classe moyenne noire canadienne en plein essor, sont aux prises avec une mobilité contradictoire sur le terrain racialisé du Canada. Il contribue aux discussions sur la classe moyenne noire, dans le contexte d’une « relative nouveauté des classes moyennes noires » (Rollock et al. 2012, 253).
Mots-clés :
- Infirmières immigrées noires africaines,
- Afropolitanisme,
- projets culturels et pratiques de création des classes,
- mobilités contradictoires,
- classe sociale,
- race
Parties annexes
Bibliography
- Adey, Peter. 2013. “Introduction.” In The Routledge Handbook of Mobilities, edited by Peter Adey, David Bissell, and Kevin Hannam, 1–20. (1st Ed,). London: Routledge.
- Adjepong, Anima. 2021. Afropolitan Projects: Redefining Blackness, Sexualities, and Culture from Houston to Accra. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
- Adjepong, Anima, 2018. “Afropolitan Projects: African Immigrant Identities and Solidarities in the United States.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 41 (2): 248–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1281985
- Ameeriar, Lalaie. 2017. Downwardly Global: Women, Work and Citizenship in the Pakistani Diaspora. Durham: Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.1353/book.64055
- Block, Sheila, Edward Galabuzi-Grace, and Ricardo Tranjan. 2019. Canada’s Colour-Coded Income Inequality: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. Ottawa: Ontario. https://policyalternatives.ca/publications/reports/canadas-colour-coded-income-inequality
- Brigham, Ann. 2015. American Road Narratives: Reimagining Mobility in Literature and Film. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. muse.jhu.edu/book/39845.
- Calliste, Agnes. 1996. Antiracism Organizing and Resistance in Nursing: African Canadian Women. Canadian Review of Sociology (33): 361–390. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-618X.1996.tb02457.x
- Cati, Coe, and Julia Pauli. 2020. Migration and Social Class in Africa: Class-Making Projects in Translocal Social Fields. Africa Today 66 (3), 2–9. muse.jhu.edu/article/761480.
- Cooper Brathwaite, Angela, Dania Versailles, Daria A. Juüdi-Hope, Maurice Coppin, Keisha Jefferies, Renee Bradley, Racquel Campbell, Corsita T. Garraway, Ola A. T. Obewu, Cheryl LaRonde-Ogilvie, Dionne Sinclair, Brittany Groom, Harveer Punia, Doris Grinspun. 2022. “Black Nurses in Action: A Social Movement to end Racism and Discrimination.” Nursing Inquiry 29 (1). https://doi.org/10.1111/nin.12482
- Creese, Gillian. 2013. “Gender, Generation, and Identities in Vancouver’s African Diaspora.” African Diaspora 6 (2): 155–178. https://brill.com/view/journals/afdi/6/2/article-p155_2.xml.
- Creese, Gillian, 2011. The New African Diaspora in Vancouver: Migration, Exclusion and Belonging. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
- Creese, Gillian, and Brandy Wiebe. 2012. “‘Survival Employment’: Gender and Deskilling Among African Immigrants in Canada.” International Migration 50 (5): 56–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2009.00531.x
- Dabiri, Emma. 2016. “Why I am (still) not an Afropolitan.” Journal of African Cultural Studies 28 (1): 104–108. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24758435
- Daniel, Margaret Beverly-Jean. 2021. “Racial Oases as Spaces of Positive Racial Identity Socialization among African Canadian Postsecondary Students.” International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 36 (10): 2177-2195 https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2021.1982047
- Das Gupta, Tania. 2009. Real Nurses and Others: Racism in Nursing. Halifax: Fernwood Publishing.
- De Sousa, Ismalia, Lydia Wytenbroek, Geertje Boschma, and Sally Thorne. 2023. “Reflections on Black Nurses’ Invisibility: Exploring the Contribution of Black Nurses to British Columbia (Canada), 1845–1910.” Advances in Nursing Science. Feb: 1–13.
- Ede, Amatoritsero. 2016. “The Politics of Afropolitanism” Journal of African Cultural Studies 28 (1): 88–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/13696815.2015.1132622
- Etowa, B. Josephine, Sarla Sethi and Roxie Thompson-Isherwood. 2009. “The Substantive Theory of Surviving on the Margin of a Profession.” Nursing Science Quarterly 22 (2): 174–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894318409332781
- Essed, Philomena. 1991. Understanding Everyday Racism: An Interdisciplinary Theory. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
- Eze, Chielozona. 2014.“Rethinking African Culture and Identity: The Afropolitan Model.” Journal of African Cultural Studies 26 (2): 234–247. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24758424
- Flynn, Karen. 2011. Moving Beyond Borders: A History of Black Canadian and Caribbean Women in the Diaspora. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
- Gikandi, Simon. 2011. “Foreword: On Afropolitanism.” In Negotiating Afropolitanism: Essays on Borders and Spaces in Contemporary African Literature and Folklore, edited by Jennifer Wawrzinek and J.K.S. Makokha, 9–11. (1st Ed,). BRILL.
- Hagey, Rebecca, Ushi Choudhry, Sepali Guruge, and Jane Turrittin. 2001. “Immigrant Nurses’ Experience of Racism.” Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 33 (4): 389–394. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1547-5069.2001.00389.x
- Ho, Janice. 2021. “Talks from the Convention: Afropolitanism and Social Class.” Published Online: Cambridge University Press 136 (5), 770–777. https://doi.org/10.1632/S0030812921000705
- Houle, Rene. 2020. “Changes in the Socioeconomic Situation of Canada’s Black Population, 2001 to 2016.” Ethnicity, Language and Immigration Thematic Series, no. 89. Statistics Canada. Catalogue no. 89–657-X. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2020/statcan/89-657-x/89-657-x2020001-eng.pdf.
- Jefferies, Keisha, Ruth Martin-Misener, Gail Tomblin Murphy, Jacqueline Gahagan, and Wanda Thomas Bernard. 2022. “‘African Nova Scotian Nurses’ Perceptions and Experiences of Leadership: A Qualitative Study Informed by Black Feminist Theory.” CMAJ. 194 (42): E1437–1447. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.220019.
- Jefferies, Keisha, Megan Aston, and Gail Tomblin Murphy. 2018. “Black Nurse Leaders in the Canadian Healthcare System.” Nursing Leadership (31) 4: 50–56. https://www.longwoods.com/content/25756/nursing-leadership/black-nurse-leaders-in-the- canadian-healthcare-system.
- Kihika, Maureen. 2022. “‘Good Intentions’ that ‘Do Harm’: Canada’s State Multiculturalism Policy in the Case of Black Canadians.” Canadian Review of Sociology. 59 (4): 436–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/cars.12397
- Kihika, Maureen, 2020. “Conceptualizing Canada’s Subtle—“not so bad”—Racism Problem. Canadian Review of Sociology 57 (4): 713–716. https://doi.org/10.1111/cars.12308
- Kihika, Maureen, Forthcoming. “The Work-Life Experiences of Black African Immigrant Nurses in Vancouver: Everyday Racisms and Acts of Resistance.” Journal of Canadian Studies.
- Lacy, Karyn. 2007. Blue-Chip Black: Race, Class, and Status in the New Black Middle Class. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
- Mackey, Eva. 2002. The House of Difference: Cultural Politics and National Identity in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203981306.
- Mbembe, Achille. 2017. “Afropolitanism.” Translated by Paulo Lemos Horta. In Cosmopolitanism, edited by Anthony Kwameh Appiah et al., 102–107. New York: New York University Press.
- Mensah, Joseph and Christopher, J. Williams. 2015. “Seeing/being Double: How African Immigrants in Canada balance their Ethno-Racial and National Identities.” African and Black Diaspora: An International Journal 8 (1): 39–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/17528631.2014.986024
- Moore, Kesha. 2008. “Class Formations: Competing Forms of Black Middle-Class Identity.” Ethnicities 8 (4): 492–517. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796808097075
- Musila, A. Grace, 2016. “Part-Time Africans, Europolitans, and ‘Africa Lite.’” Journal of African Cultural Studies 28 (1): 109–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/13696815.2015.1099424
- Ortner, Sherry B. 1995. “Resistance and the Problem of Ethnographic Refusal.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 37 (1):173–193. https://www.jstor.org/stable/179382
- Parreñas, Salazar Rhacel. 2001. Servants of Globalization: Women, Migration and Domestic Work. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Pittman, Cassi. 2020. ““Shopping while Black”: Black Consumers’ Management of Racial Stigma and Racial Profiling in Retail Settings.” Journal of Consumer Culture 20 (1): 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469540517717777
- Registered Nurses Association of Ontario’s Black Nurses Task Force (RNAO). 2020, June. Acknowledging, Addressing and Tackling Anti-Black Racism and Discrimination within the Nursing Profession. Retrieved from: Black nurses and RNAO | RNAO.ca. https://rnao.ca/policy/black-nurses-task-force-bntf-report-2022
- Rollock, Nicola, Carol Vincent, David Gillborn and Stephen Ball. “‘Middle Class by Profession’: Class Status and Identification amongst the Black Middle Classes.” Ethnicities 13 (3): 253–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796812467743
- Selasi, Taiye. 2005. Bye-bye Babar. The Lip Magazine. http://thelip.robertsharp.co.uk/?p=76
- Showers, Fumilayo. 2015. “Building a Professional Identity: Boundary work and Meaning Making among West-African Immigrant Nurses.” In Caring on the Clock, edited by Duffy Mignon, Amy Armenia, Clare L. Stacey, and Margaret K. Nelson, 143–152. Rutgers University Press. https://muse.jhu.edu/book/46073.
- Thorkelson, Eli. 2016. “Precarity Outside: The Political Unconscious of French Academic Labour.” American Ethnologist 43 (3): 475–487. https://doi.org/10.1111/amet.12340
- Turrittin, Jane, Rebecca Hageya, Sepali Gurugea, Enid Collins, and Mitzi Mitchell. 2002. “The Experiences of Professional Nurses who have migrated to Canada: Cosmopolitan Citizenship or Democratic Racism?” International Journal of Nursing Studies 39 (6): 655–667. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7489(02)00003-2
- Wane, Njoki. 2009. “African Canadian Women and the Question of Identity,” Atlantis, 34 (1): 149–158. https://journals.msvu.ca/index.php/atlantis/article/view/227
- Wane, Njoki, and Notisha Massaquoi. 2007. Theorizing Empowerment: Canadian Perspectives on Black Feminist Thought. Toronto: Inanna Publications and Education Inc.
- Willmott, Kyle. 2021. Taxes, Taxpayers, and Settler Colonialism: Toward a Critical Fiscal Sociology of Tax as White Property. Law and Society Review 5 (6): 6–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12587
- Wilson-Forsberg, Stacey, Oliver Masakure, Edward Shizha, Ginette Lafrenière and Magnus Mfoafo-M’Carthy. 2020. “Disrupting an Imposed Racial Identity or Performing the Model Minority? The Pursuit of Postsecondary Education by Young African Immigrant Men in Southern Ontario, Canada,” Race, Ethnicity and Education 23 (5): 693–711. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2018.1497965