Abstracts
Abstract
When it comes to negotiating over a collective dismissals plan, the French national legal framework explicitly encourages social partners to favour outplacement services over significant indemnity payments. However, significant above-mandatory redundancy payments are commonly granted to laid-off workers. Based on these factual observations, this article aims to identify the antecedent conditions, or, more precisely, the combinations of conditions, that lead to the granting of a large severance pay. We conducted a qualitative comparative analysis (Crisp set QCA) methodology applied to 20 monographs on downsizing operations that took place in France during the 2000s. The results show that above-mandatory severance payments are closely related to two major dimensions characterizing the economic and social context in which restructuring processes are carried out. The first one is about the balance of power prevailing between the company decisionmakers and the employees. This balance of power dimension is subsumed by two distinct conditions: the availability of financial resources and the presence of active unions. The second dimension relates to the moral and economic damages inflicted upon laid-off workers. This dimension is intrinsically connected to two downsizing process features, i.e. the perceived degree of legitimacy associated with the downsizing process and the degree of employability associated with the laid-off workers. Most notably, it appears that none of the identified conditions is sufficient by itself to induce the payment of a significant above-mandatory indemnity. However, some causal conditions may induce the outcome variable when they are combined with some specific other antecedent conditions. Thus, our research shows that the financial resource condition leads to the granting of an above-mandatory indemnity either in conjunction with a low degree of worker’s employability or in conjunction with both a weak perceived legitimacy of the restructuring process and the presence of active unions.
Keywords:
- downsizing,
- restructuring,
- employment,
- severance pay,
- industrial relations,
- qualitative comparative analysis (QCA)
Résumé
Les dispositifs légaux français qui encadrent les suppressions d’emplois incitent explicitement les partenaires sociaux à négocier des accords mettant l’accent sur le reclassement des salariés licenciés plutôt que sur l’indemnisation financière. Pourtant, l’octroi d’indemnités supra-légales semble bien inscrit dans les pratiques des entreprises françaises. Cet article tente d’identifier les conditions ou, plus précisément, les combinaisons de conditions qui conduisent à l’octroi d’indemnités supra-légales. Pour cela, nous avons mené une analyse qualitative comparée (Crisp set QCA) de 20 cas de restructurations ayant eu lieu en France au cours de la décennie 2000. Les résultats montrent que les indemnités de licenciement sont conditionnées par deux dimensions principales du contexte économique et social dans lequel se déroulent les suppressions d’emplois. D’une part, l’instauration d’un rapport de force favorable aux salariés est nécessaire. Celui-ci dépend soit de la disponibilité de ressources financières, soit de la présence de syndicats actifs. D’autre part, il est nécessaire qu’il y ait un préjudice moral ou économique infligé aux salariés licenciés. Le préjudice moral est lié à la légitimité de la décision de suppression d’emploi. Le préjudice économique s’avère lié à l’employabilité des salariés concernés. Nous montrons plus précisément qu’aucune de ces conditions n’est suffisante pour expliquer à elle seule les indemnités supra-légales, mais qu’il faut s’attacher à l’identification de combinaisons de conditions. Il en ressort que la disponibilité de ressources financières est une condition nécessaire au versement d’indemnités supra-légales, mais qu’elle doit être combinée soit avec une faible employabilité des salariés soit avec une combinaison associant une faible légitimité de l’opération ainsi que la présence de syndicats actifs et organisés.
Mots-clés:
- suppressions d’emplois,
- restructurations,
- licenciements,
- indemnités,
- relations sociales,
- analyse qualitative comparative (AQC-QCA en anglais)
Resumen
En situación de negociación de un plan colectivo de despidos, el marco legal en Francia incita explícitamente las partes a favorecer los servicios de recolocación en lugar de los pagos significativos de indemnización. Sin embargo, es muy común de otorgar indemnizaciones superiores al monto legal a los trabajadores despedidos. Basado en estas observaciones factuales, este artículo trata de identificar las condiciones precedentes o, más precisamente, las combinaciones de condiciones que llevan al otorgamiento de un monto mayor de indemnización. Se realizó un análisis cualitativo comparativo aplicando la metodología (Crisp set QCA) a 20 monografías sobre las operaciones de reducción de personal llevadas a cabo durante la década 2000. Los resultados muestran que el pago de indemnizaciones superiores al monto legal está estrechamente vinculado a dos dimensiones características del contexto económico y social en el que se llevan a cabo los procesos de restructuración. La primera se refiere a la correlación de fuerzas predominante entre los decidores de la compañía y los empleados. Dicha correlación de fuerzas depende, de un lado, de la disponibilidad de recursos financieros y del otro, de la presencia activa de sindicatos. La segunda dimensión incumbe los daños y perjuicios morales y económicos infligidos a los trabajadores despedidos. Esta dimensión está intrínsecamente vinculada a dos características del proceso de reducción de personal: (1) la percepción de legitimidad del proceso de reducción de personal y (2) el nivel de empleabilidad de los trabajadores despedidos. El análisis hace resaltar que ninguna de las condiciones identificadas es suficiente en sí misma para explicar el pago de indemnizaciones significativamente superiores al monto legal. Pero ciertas condiciones causales pueden inducir el resultado si son combinadas con otras condiciones específicas precedentes. Así, los resultados de nuestra investigación muestran que la disponibilidad de los recursos financieros lleva a otorgar indemnizaciones superiores al monto legal, solamente si otra condición es también presente: sea un nivel bajo de empleabilidad de los trabajadores, sea un nivel bajo de legitimidad percibida del proceso de restructuración combinado a la presencia activa de sindicatos.
Palabras claves:
- reducción de personal,
- restructuración,
- empleo,
- indemnización de despido,
- relaciones industriales,
- análisis cualitativo comparativo (QCA)
Appendices
References
- Addison, John T. and Paolino Teixeira, 2003. “What Have We Learned About the Employment Effects of Severance Pay? Further Iterations”. Lazear et al.IZA Discussion Paper No. 943. Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA).10.1002/j.2161-0045.2004.tb00647.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Amossé, Thomas, Catherine Bloch-London and Loup Wolff, 2008. Les relations sociales en entreprise: un portrait à partir des enquêtes relations professionnelles et négociations d’entreprise (REPONSE 1992-1993, 1998-1999 et 2004-2005). Éditions La Découverte.10.1111/j.1467-8543.1996.tb00470.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Amundson, Norman E., William A. Borgen, Sharalyn Jordan and Anne C. Erlebach, 2004. “Survivors of Downsizing : Helpful and Hindering Experiences.” The Career Development Quarterly, (52), 256-271.10.1002/j.2161-0045.2004.tb00647.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Auer, Peter and Bernard Gazier, 2006. L’introuvable sécurité de l’emploi, Paris: Flammarion, 194 pages.10.1016/S0014-2921(98)00026-9 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Bacon, Nicolas, Paul Blyton and Jonathan Morris, 1996. “Among the Ashes: Trade Union Strategies in the UK and German Steel Industries.” British Journal of Industrial Relations, 34 (1), 25-50.10.1111/j.1467-8543.1996.tb00470.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Beaujolin-Bellet Rachel, Myriam Bobbio and Yves Moulin, 2009. “Transitions professionnelles à l’issue des plans sociaux : des parcours chaotiques”, Éducation Permanente, 181 (4), 77-90.10.2307/41166691 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Berg-Schlosser, Dirck and Georges De Meur, 2009. “Comparative research design: case and variable selection”. In B. Rihoux and C. C. Ragin (Eds.), Configurational Comparative Methods. Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) and Related Techniques. Los Angeles: Sage, 19-32.10.4135/9781452226569.n2 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Blanchard, Olivier and Jean Tirole, 2003. Protection de l’emploi et procédures de licenciement, Rapport du Conseil d’analyse économique, Paris: La Documentation française, 75 pages.10.2307/256835 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Boeri, Tito, 1999. “Enforcement of Employment Security Regulations, On-the-Job Search and Unemployment Duration.” European Economic Review, 43 (1), 65-89. 10.1016/S0014-2921(98)00026-9 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Boeri Tito, 2011. “Institutional Reforms and Dualism in European Labor Markets, in Orley Ashenfelter and David Card (Eds), Handbook of Labor Economics, 4, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1173-1236. 10.1016/S0169-7218(11)02411-7 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Brockner, Joel, 1992. “Managing the Effects of Layoffs on Survivors”. California Management Review, 34 (2), 9-28.10.2307/41166691 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Brockner, Joel, Steven Grover, Michael N.O’Malley, Thomas F. Reed and Mary Ann A. Glynn, 1993. “The Threat of Future Layoffs, Self-esteem, and Survivors’ Reactions: Evidence from the Laboratory and the Field.” Strategic Management Journal, 14 (4), 153-166.10.1002/smj.4250140912 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Brockner, Joel, Mary Konovsky, Rochelle Cooper-Schneider, Robert Folger, Christopher L. Martin and Robert J. Bies, 1994. “Interactive Effects of Procedural Justice and Outcome Negativity on Victims and Survivors of Job Loss.” Academy of Management Journal, 37 (2), 397-409.10.2307/256835 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Brockner, Joel, Gretchen M. Spreitzer, Aneil K. Mishra, Wayne Hochwarter, Lewis Pepper and Janice Weinberg, 2004. “Perceived Control as an Antidote to the Negative Effects of Layoffs on Survivors’ Organizational Commitment and Job Performance.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 49 (1), 76-100.10.1177/019027250506800107 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Brockner, Joel, Tom R. Tyler and Rochelle Cooper-Schneider, 1992. “The Influence of Prior Commitment to an Institution on Reactions to Perceived Unfairness: the Higher They Are, the Harder They Fall.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 37 (2), 241-262.10.2307/2393223 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Brockner, Joel, Batia M. Wiesenfeld and Christopher L. Martin, 1995. “Decision Frame, Procedural Justice, and Survivors’ Reactions to Job Layoffs.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 63 (1), 59-68.10.1006/obhd.1995.1061 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Bruggeman, Frédéric and Bernard Gazier, 2008. Restructuring Work and Employment in Europe. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.10.1111/j.1564-913X.2004.tb00269.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Callus, Ron, Alison Morehead, Mark Cully and John Buchanan, 1991. Industrial Relations at Work: the Australian Workplace Industrial Relations Survey. Australian Government Publishing Service.10.1002/hrm.3930330206 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Cameron, Kim S., 1994. “Strategies for Successful Organizational Downsizing.” Human Resource Management, 33 (2), 189-211.10.1002/hrm.3930330204 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Caren, Neal and Aaron Panofsky, 2005. “TQCA: a Technique for Adding Temporality to Qualitative Comparative Analysis.” Sociological Methods and Research, 34 (2), 147-172.10.1177/0049124105277197 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Cascio, Wayne F., 2002. “Strategies for Responsible Restructuring.” Academy of Management Executive, 16, 80-91.10.5465/AME.2002.8540331 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Challenger, John A., 2005. “Return on Investment of High-quality Outplacement Programs.” Economic Perspectives, 29 (2), 86-93.10.1177/0018726708094913 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Chanson, Guillaume, Benoît Demil, Xavier Lecocq and Pierre-Antoine Sprimont, 2005. “La place de l’analyse qualitative comparée en sciences de gestion.” Finance Contrôle Stratégie, 8 (3), 29-50.10.1177/1094428107302907 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Clay-Warner, Jody, Karen A. Hegtvedt and Paul Roman, 2005. “Procedural Justice, Distributive Justice: How Experiences with Downsizing Condition their Impact on Organizational Commitment.” Social Psychology Quarterly, 68 (1), 89-102.10.1177/019027250506800107 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Contu, Alessia, Florence Palpacuer and Nicolas Balas, 2013. “Multinational Corporations’ Politics and Resistance to Plant Shutdowns: A Comparative Case Study in the South of France.” Human Relations,66, 363-384. 10.1177/0018726712469547 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Datta, Deepak K., James P. Guthrie, Dynah Basuil and Alankrita Pandey, 2010. “Causes and Effects of Employee Downsizing: a Review and Synthesis.” Journal of Management, 36 (1), 281-348.10.1177/0149206309346735 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- De Grip, Andries, Jasper Van Loo and Jos Sanders, 2004. “The Industry Employability Index: Taking Account of Supply and Demand Characteristics.” International Labour Review, 143 (3), 211-233.10.1111/j.1564-913X.2004.tb00269.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Feldman, Daniel C. and Carrie R. Leana, 1994. “Better Practices in Managing Layoffs.” Human Resource Management, 33 (2), 239-260.10.1002/hrm.3930330206 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Fiss, Peer C., 2007. “A Set-theoretic Approach to Organizational Configurations”, Academy of Management Review, 32 (4), 1180-1198.10.5465/AMR.2007.26586092 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Frost, Ann C., 2000. “Explaining Variation in Workplace Restructuring: the Role of Local Union Capabilities.” Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 559-578.10.1177/001979390005300401 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Frost, Ann C., 2001. “Reconceptualizing Local Union Responses to Workplace Restructuring in North America.” British Journal of Industrial Relations, 39 (4), 539-564.10.1111/1467-8543.00214 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Garaudel Pierre, Florent Noël and Géraldine Schmidt, 2008. “Overcoming the Risks of Restructuring Through the Integrative Bargaining Process: Two Case Studies in a French Context”, Human Relations, 61, 1293-1331.10.1177/0018726708094913 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Gazier, Bernard, 2006. “L’employabilité.” In J. Allouche (Ed.), Encyclopédie des ressources humaines (2nd ed.), Paris: Vuibert, 350-356.10.1023/A:1011256729444 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Gill Indermit, Johannes Koettl and Truman Packard, 2013. “Full Employment: a Distant Dream for Europe”, IZA Journal of European Labor Studies, December, 2-19. 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1998.tb00715.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Greckhamer, Thomas, Vilmos F. Misangyi, Heather Elms and Rodney Lacey, 2008. “Using Qualitative Comparative Analysis in Strategic Management Research: an Examination of Combinations of Industry, Corporate, and Business-Unit Effects.” Organizational Research Methods, 11 (4), 695-726.10.1177/1094428107302907 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Greenhalgh, Leonard and Robert B. McKersie, 1980. “Cost-effectiveness of Alternative Strategies for Cut-back Management.” Public Administration Review, 40 (6), 575-584.10.2307/3110310 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Greenhalgh, Leonard and Zehava Rosenblatt, 2010. “Evolution of Research on Job Insecurity.” International Studies of Management and Organization, 40 (1), 6-19.10.2753/IMO0020-8825400101 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Hall Peter A. and Soskice David (eds.) 2001. Varieties of Capitalism. The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/0199247757.001.0001 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Kelly, John E., 1998. Rethinking Industrial Relations: Mobilisation, Collectivism and Long Waves. New York; London: Routledge.10.4324/9780203213940 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Kitay, Jim and Mick Marchington, 1996. “A Review and Critique of Workplace Industrial Relations Typologies.” Human Relations, 49 (10), 1263-1290.10.1177/001872679604901001 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Kogut, Bruce and Charles C. Ragin, 2006. “Exploring Complexity When Diversity Is Limited: Institutional Complementarity in Theories of Rule of Law and National Systems Revisited.” European Management Review, 3 (1), 44-59.10.1057/palgrave.emr.1500048 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Laroche, Patrice, 2015. “Employment Relations in France.” In Bamber Greg J. et al. (eds) International and Comparative Employment Relations, 6th edition, Sage10.1177/107179190501200105 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Lazear, Edward P., 1990. Job Security Provisions and Employment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, (105), 699-726.10.2307/2937895 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Lévesque, Christian and Gregor Murray, 2010. “Understanding Union Power: Resources and Capabilities for Renewing Union Capacity.” Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research, 16 (3), 333-350.10.1177/1024258910373867 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Lewin, David, 2005. “Unionism and Employment Conflict Resolution: Rethinking Collective Voice and its Consequences.” Journal of Labor Research, 26 (2), 209-239.10.1007/s12122-005-1023-3 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Malo, Miguel A. 2001. “European Labour Law and Severance Pay Determination in Collective Redundancies.” European Journal of Law and Economics, 12 (1), 73-90.10.1023/A:1011256729444 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Mansour-Cole, Dina M. and Susanne G. Scott, 1998. “Hearing it Through the Grapevine: the Influence of Source, Leader Relations, and Legitimacy on Survivors’ Fairness Perception”. Personnel psychology, (51), pages manquantes.10.1111/j.1744-6570.1998.tb00715.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- McQuaid, Ronald W. and Colin Lindsay, 2005. “The Concept of Employability.” Urban Studies (Routledge), 42 (2), 197-219.10.1080/0042098042000316100 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Miller, Dany, 1990. “Organizational Configurations: Cohesion, Change, and Prediction.” Human Relations, 43 (8), 771-789.10.1177/001872679004300805 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Petrovski, Maxime, Rachel Beaujolin-Bellet, Frédéric Bruggeman and Claude-Emmanuel Triomphe, 2008. “France: Law-driven Restructuring.” In B. Gazier and F. Bruggeman (Eds.), Restructuring Work and Employment in Europe: Managing Change in an Era of Globalisation, 101.10.4337/9781848442832.00011 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Ragin, Charles C., 1987. The Comparative Method: Moving Beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies. Berkeley: University of California Press.10.1037/0021-9010.84.6.897 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Ragin, Charles C., 2000. Fuzzy-Set Social Science. University of Chicago Press.10.1002/j.2161-1920.2004.tb00874.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Ragin, Charles C., 2008. Redesigning Social inquiry: Fuzzy Sets and Beyond. Wiley Online Library.10.7208/chicago/9780226702797.001.0001 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Ramonet, Marcelle, 2010. Les cellules de reclassement, Conseil économique, social et environnemental, Les éditions des Journaux Officiels, 100 pages.10.3917/dec.bloch.2008.01 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Rihoux, Benoît, 2003. “Bridging the Gap between the Qualitative and Quantitative Worlds? A Retrospective and Prospective View on Qualitative Comparative Analysis.” Field Methods, 15 (4), 351-365.10.1177/1525822X03257690 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Rihoux, Benoît, Priscilla Alamos, Damien Bol, Axel Marx and Iloana Rezsohazy, 2013. “From Niche to Mainstream Method? A Comprehensive Mapping of QCA Applications in Journal Articles from 1984 to 2011.” Political Research Quarterly, 66 (1), 175-184.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Rihoux, Benoît and Bojana Lobe, 2009. “The Case for Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA): Adding Leverage for Thick Cross-Case Comparison.” The SAGE Handbook of Case-based Methods, 222-242.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Rothwell, Andrew and John Arnold, 2007. “Self-Perceived Employability: Development and Validation of a Scale.” Personnel Review, 36 (1), 23-41.10.1108/00483480710716704 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Rousseau, Denise M., 1995. Psychological Contracts in Organizations: Understanding Written and Unwritten Agreements. SAGE.10.4135/9781452231594 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Rust, Kathleen G., William McKinley, Gyewan Moon and John C. Edwards, 2005. “Ideological Foundations of Perceived Contract Breach Associated with Downsizing: an Empirical Investigation.” Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies (Baker College), 12 (1), 37-52.10.1177/107179190501200105 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Sager, Fritz and Céline Andereggen, 2012. “Dealing with Complex Causality in Realist Synthesis: the Promise of Qualitative Comparative Analysis.” American Journal of Evaluation, 33 (1), 60-78.10.1177/1098214011411574 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Sahdev, Kusum, 2004. “Revisiting the Survivor Syndrome: the Role of Leadership in Implementing Downsizing.” European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 13 (2), 165-196.10.1080/13594320444000056 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Sanders, Jos and Andries De Grip, 2004. “Training, Task Flexibility and the Employability of Low-skilled Workers.” International Journal of Manpower, 25 (1), 73-89.10.1108/01437720410525009 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Stroud, Dean and Peter Fairbrother, 2012. “The Limits and Prospects of Union Power: Addressing Mass Redundancy in the Steel Industry.” Economic and Industrial Democracy, 33 (4), 649-668.10.1177/0143831X11425542 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Tirole, Jean, 2014. “La théorie économique de la régulation des licenciements”, Commentaire, 1 (145), 65-72.10.3917/comm.145.0065 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Van Buren, Harry J., 1999. “Acting More Generously Than the Law Requires: the Issue of Employee Layoffs in Halakhah.” Journal of Business Ethics, 19, 335-343.10.1023/A:1005976531062 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Van Buren, Harry J., 2000. “The Bindingness of Social and Psychological Contracts: Toward a Theory of Social Responsibility in Downsizing.” Journal of Business Ethics, (25), 205-219.10.1023/A:1006158022338 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Waddington, Jeremy and Allan Kerr, 1999. “Trying to Stem the Flow: Union Membership Turnover in the Public Sector.” Industrial Relations Journal, 30 (3), 184-196.10.1111/1468-2338.00119 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Wanberg, Connie R., Ruth Kanfer and Maria Rotundo, 1999. “Unemployed Individuals: Motives, Job-search Competencies, and Job-search Constraints as Predictors of Job Seeking and Reemployment.” The Journal of Applied Psychology, 84 (6), 897-910.10.1037/0021-9010.84.6.897 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- Westaby, James D., 2004. “The Impact of Outplacement Programs on Reemployment Criteria: a Longitudinal Study of Displaced Managers and Executives.” Journal of Employment Counseling, 41 (1), 19-28.10.1002/j.2161-1920.2004.tb00874.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
