Abstracts
Résumé
De récentes études ont montré que la végétation urbaine est inégalement distribuée au sein de plusieurs métropoles nord-américaines : certains quartiers plus défavorisés ou à forte concentration ethnique présenteraient des niveaux de couverture végétale plus limités. L’objectif de cet article est de vérifier l’existence d’iniquités environnementales en termes d’accès à la végétation urbaine sur le territoire de l’ancienne ville de Montréal pour les personnes à faible revenu et les minorités visibles. Six indicateurs de végétation à l’intérieur et autour des îlots résidentiels (à 250 et 500 m) sont construits à l’aide d’images satellites QuickBird. Puis, ces indicateurs sont mis en relation avec des données socioéconomiques au moyen de plusieurs analyses statistiques (corrélation, test de Student (test t), analyse de variance et analyse de régression). Les résultats démontrent que la population à faible revenu et, dans une moindre mesure, celle des minorités visibles résident dans des environnements où la végétation est moins présente. Finalement, l’utilisation combinée d’indicateurs de végétation à l’intérieur et autour de l’îlot permet de démontrer l’existence d’une double iniquité dans certains secteurs urbains.
Mots-clés:
- Végétation urbaine,
- équité environnementale,
- justice environnementale,
- analyse spatiale,
- télédétection,
- Montréal
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that urban vegetation is unevenly distributed across numerous North American cities: neighbourhoods predominantly inhabited by low income population or by certain ethnic groups have lower vegetation cover. The goal of this paper is to examine the existence of environmental inequities related to access to urban vegetation in the former city of Montréal with regards to low-income people and visible minorities. Six indicators of vegetation in and around residential blocks (at 250 and 500 m) are computed by using Quickbird satellite images. These indicators are then related to socio-economic data by different statistical analysis (correlation, Student’s t-test, analysis of variance and regression). Our results indicate that low-income people, and in lesser degree, visible minorities reside in areas where vegetation is less present. Finally the use of indicators computed in and around blocks allows us to reveal the presence of a double inequity in certain neighbourdhoods.
Keywords:
- Urban vegetation,
- environmental equity,
- environmental justice,
- spatial analysis,
- remote sensing,
- Montréal
Resumen
Estudios recientes han mostrado que la vegetación urbana se distribuye de manera desigual en varias metrópolis norte-americanas. Ciertos barrios desfavorecidos o con fuerte concentración étnica presentan una cobertura vegetal bastante limitada. El objetivo de este artículo es el de verificar la parcialidad ambiental de acceso a la vegetación urbana para las personas de bajos ingresos y para las minorías visibles, en la antigua ciudad de Montréal. Seis indicadores de vegetación al rededor de los barrios residenciales (entre 250 y 500 m), se determinan gracias a imágenes satélite-QuickBird. Estos indicadores son relacionados con datos socio-económicos mediante análisis estadísticos (correlación, prueba t de Student, análisis de la varianza y regresión). Los resultados muestran que la población de bajos ingresos y, en menor proporción, la de minorías visibles, residen en ambientes de escasa vegetación. Finalmente, la utilización combinada de indicadores de vegetación en un barrio o a su alrededor muestra una doble parcialidad, en algunos sectores urbanos.
Palabras claves:
- Vegetación urbana,
- equidad ambiental,
- justicia ambiental,
- análisis espacial,
- teledetección,
- Montréal
Appendices
Bibliographie
- AGYEMAN, Julien et EVANS, Bob (2004) « Just sustainability »: The emerging discourse of environmental justice in Britain? The Geographical Journal, vol. 170, no 2, p. 155-164.10.1016/0169-2046(88)90023-0 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- ANDERSON, L. M. et CORDELL, H. K. (1988) Influence of trees on residential property values in Athens, Georgia (U.S.A.): A survey based on actual sales prices. Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 15, p. 153-164.10.1016/0169-2046(88)90023-0 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- ANSELIN, Luc (1988) Spatial econometrics: Methods and models. Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers.10.1016/j.ufug.2007.07.003 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- ANSELIN, Luc, FLORAX, Raymond et REY, Sergio, J. (2004) Advances in spatial econometrics: Methodology, tools and applications. Berlin, Springer.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.04.054 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- APPARICIO, Philippe et SÉGUIN, Anne-Marie (2006a) L’accessibilité aux services et aux équipements : un enjeu d’équité pour les personnes âgées résidant en HLM à Montréal. Cahiers de géographie du Québec, vol. 50, no 139, p. 23-44.10.1068/a37365 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- APPARICIO, Philippe et SÉGUIN, Anne-Marie (2006b) Measuring the accessibility of services and facilities for residents of public housing in Montréal. Urban Studies, vol. 43, no 1, p. 187-211.10.1186/1476-072X-10-7 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- APPARICIO, Philippe, ABDELMAJID, Mohamed, RIVA, Mylène et SHEARMUR, Richard (2008) Comparing alternative approaches to measuring the geographical accessibility of urban health services: Distance types and aggregation-error issues. International Journal of Health Geographics, vol. 7, no 7. doi :10.1186/1476-072X-7-710.1186/1476-072X-7-7 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- APPARICIO, Philippe, CLOUTIER, Marie-Soleil, SÉGUIN, Anne-Marie et ADES, Josefina (2010) Accessibilité aux parcs urbains pour les enfants et injustice environnementale : exploration du cas montréalais. Revue Internationale de Géomatique, vol. 20, no 3, p. 363-389.10.1016/j.forpol.2008.07.005 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BOONE, Christopher G., BUCKLEY, Geoffrey L., GROVE, J. Morgan et SISTER, Chona (2009) Parks and people: An environmental justice inquiry in Baltimore, Maryland. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol. 99, no 4, p. 767-787.10.1038/sj.jea.7500023 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- BRIGGS, David, ABELLAN, Juan J. et FECHT, Daniela (2008) Environmental inequity in England: Small area associations between socio-economic status and environmental pollution. Social Science & Medicine, vol. 67, no 10, p. 1612-1629.10.1080/01431169208904116 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- CACKOWSKI, Jean-Marie et NASAR, Jack L. (2003) The restorative effects of roadside vegetation: Implications for automobile driver anger and frustration. Environment and Behavior, vol. 35, no 6, p. 736-751.10.1016/S0169-2046(01)00192-X Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- CASTONGUAY, Geneviève et JUTRAS, Sylvie (2008) Children’s appreciation of outdoor places in a poor neighborhood. Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol. 29, no 1, p. 101-109.10.1111/j.0016-7398.2004.00117.x Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- CONWAY, Tenley et URBANI, Lisa (2007) Variations in municipal urban forestry policies: A case study of Toronto, Canada. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, vol. 6, p. 181-192.10.1016/j.ufug.2007.07.003 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- CUTTER, Susan L., HOLM, Danika et CLARK, Lloyd (1996) The role of geographic scale in monitoring environmental justice. Risk Analysis, vol. 16, no 4, p. 517-526.10.1007/978-3-662-05617-2 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- DE RIDDER, Koen et al. (2004) An integrated methodology to assess the benefits of urban green space. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 334-335, p. 489-497.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.04.054 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- DES ROSIERS, François, THÉRIAULT, Marius, KESTENS, Yan et VILLENEUVE, Paul (2002) Landscaping and house values: An empirical investigation. Journal of Real Estate Research, vol. 23, nos 1 et 2, p. 139-161.10.1080/00420980500409334 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- GROVE, J. Morgan et al. (2006) Data and methods comparing social structure and vegetation structure of urban neighborhoods in Baltimore, Maryland. Society and Natural Resources, vol. 19, p. 117-136.10.3166/rig.20.363-389 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- HEYNEN, Nik (2006) Green urban political ecologies: Toward a better understanding of inner-city environmental change. Environment and Planning A, vol. 38, p. 499-516.10.1068/a37365 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- HEYNEN, Nik, PERKINS, Harold A. et ROY, Parama (2006) The political ecology of uneven urban green space. The impact of political economy on race and ethnicity in producing environmental inequality in Milwaukee. Urban Affairs Review, vol. 42, no 1, p. 3-25.10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.06.040 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- HOPE, Diane et al. (2003) Socio-economics drive urban plant diversity. Proceeding of the National Academic Sciences, vol. 100, no 5, p. 8788-8792.10.1177/0013916503256267 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- JO, H. K. et McPHERSON, Gregory (2001) Indirect carbon reduction by residential vegetation and planting strategies in Chicago, USA. Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 61, p. 165-177.10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.05.002 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- KESTENS, Yan, BRAND, Allan, FOURNIER, Michel, GOUDREAU, Sophie, KOSATSKY, Tom, MALOLEY, Matthew et SMARGIASSI, Audrey (2011) Modelling the variation of land surface temperature as determinant of risk of heat-related health events. International Journal of Health Geographics, vol. 10., no 7, 10.1186/1476-072X-10-7 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- KINGHAM, Simon, PEARCE, Jamie et PEYMAN, Zawar-Reza (2007) Driven to injustice? Environmental justice and vehicle pollution in Christchurch, New Zealand. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, vol. 12, no 4, p. 254-263.10.1080/10835547.2002.12091072 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- KONG, Fanhua, YIN, Haiwei et NAKAGOSHI, Nobukazu (2007) Using GIS and landscape metrics in the hedonic price modeling of the amenity value of urban green space: A case study in Jinan City, China. Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 79, p. 240-252.10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.02.013 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- KWEON, Byoung-Suk, SULLIVAN, William et WILEY, Angela (1998) Green common spaces and the social integration of inner-city older adults. Environment and Behavior, vol. 30, no 6, p. 832-858.10.1177/1078087406290729 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- LANDRY, Shawn M. et CHAKRABORTY, Jayajit (2009) Street trees and equity: Evaluating the spatial distribution of an urban amenity. Environment and Planning A, vol. 41, p. 2651-2670.10.1073/pnas.1537557100 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- LANDRY, Shawn M. et PU, Ruiliang (2010) The impact of land development regulation on residential tree cover: An empirical evaluation using high-resolution IKONOS imagery. Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 94, no 2, p. 94-104.10.1006/jema.2000.0393 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- LO, Chor Pang et FABER, Benjamin J. (1997) Integration of landsat thematic mapper and census data for quality of life assessment. Remote Sensing of Environment, vol. 62, p. 143-157.10.1016/j.trd.2007.02.004 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- McCONNACHIE, M. Mathew et SHACKLETON, Charlie M. (2009) Public green space inequality in small towns in South Africa. Habitat International, vol. 34, p. 244-248.10.1177/001391659803000605 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- McPHERSON, Greg, SIMPSON, James R., PEPER, Paula J., MACO, Scott E. et XIAO, Qingfu (2005) Municipal forest benefits and costs in five U.S. cities. Journal of Forestry, vol. 103, no 8, p. 411-416.10.1068/a41236 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- MENNIS, Jeremy (2006) Socio-economic-vegetation relationships in urban, residential land: The case of Denver, Colorado. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, vol. 72, no 8, p. 911-921.10.1016/j.landurbplan.2009.08.003 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- PEDLOWSKI, Marcos A., DA SILVA, Victor Andrade Carneiro Da, ADELL, Janie Asmim Corabi et HEYNEN, Nikolas (2002) Urban forest and environmental inequality in Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Urban Ecosystems, vol. 6, p. 9-20.10.1016/S0034-4257(97)00088-6 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- PHAM, Thi-Thanh-Hiên, APPARICIO, Philippe, SÉGUIN, Anne-Marie et GAGNON, Martin (2011) Mapping the greenscape and environmental equity in Montreal: An application of remote sensing and GIS. Dans Sébastien Caquard, Laurence Vaughan et William Cartwright (dir.) Mapping environmental issues in the city. Arts and cartography cross perspectives. Springer, p. 30-48.10.1016/j.habitatint.2009.09.009 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- PHAM, Thi-Thanh-Hiên, APPARICIO, Philippe, SÉGUIN, Anne-Marie, LANDRY, Shawn M. et GAGNON, Martin (2012) Spatial distribution of vegetation in Montreal: An uneven distribution or environmental inequity? Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 107, no 3, p. 214-224.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- PHAM, Thi-Thanh-Hiên, APPARICIO, Philippe, LANDRY, Shawn M., SÉGUIN, Anne-Marie et GAGNON, Martin (2013) Predictors of the distribution of street and backyard vegetation in Montreal, Canada. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, vol. 12, no 1, p. 18-27.10.14358/PERS.72.8.911 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SEELAND, Klaus, DÜBENDORFER, Sabine et HANSMANN, Ralf (2009) Making friends in Zurich’s urban forests and parks: The role of public green space for social inclusion of youths from different cultures. Forest Policy and Economics, vol. 11, p. 10-17.10.1016/j.forpol.2008.07.005 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SHEPPARD, Eric, LEITNER, Helga, McMASTER, Robert B. et TIAN, Hongguo (1999) GIS-based measures of environmental equity: Exploring their sensitivity and significance. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, vol. 9, p. 18-28.10.1038/sj.jea.7500023 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- SMARGIASSI, Audrey, GOLDBERG, Mark S., PLANTE, Céline, FOURNIER, Michel, BAUDOUIN, Yves et KOSATSKY, Tom (2009) Variation of daily warm season mortality as a function of micro-urban heat islands. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, vol. 63, no 8, p. 659-664.10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.06.002 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- STATISTIQUE CANADA (2010) Dictionnaire du recensement de 2006. Ottawa.10.1016/j.ufug.2012.09.002 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- TALEN, Emily (1998) Visualizing fairness: Equity maps for planners. Journal of the American Planning Association, vol. 64, no 1, p. 22-38.10.1136/jech.2008.078147 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- TOOKE, Thoreau R., KLINKENBERG, Brian et COOPS, Nicholas C. (2010) A geographical approach to identifying vegetation-related environmental equity in Canadian cities. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, vol. 37, p. 1040-1056.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- TROY, Austin. R., GROVE, J. Morgan, O’NEIL-DUNNE, Jarlath P. M., PICKETT, Steward T. A. et CADENASSO, Mary L. (2007) Predicting opportunities for greening and patterns of vegetation on private urban lands. Environmental Management, vol. 40, p. 394-412.10.1080/01944369808975954 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- WALKER, Gordon (2009) Exploring the multipe spatialities of environmental justice. Antipode, vol. 41, no 4, p. 614-636.10.1068/b36044 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- WALKER, Gordon (2012) Environmental justice: Concepts, evidence and politics. New York, Routledge.10.1007/s00267-006-0112-2 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- WEBER, Christiane et HIRSCH, Jacky (1992) Some urban measurements from SPOT data: Urban life quality indices. International Journal of Remote Sensing, vol. 13, p. 3251-3261.10.1080/01431169208904116 Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- WEBER, Christiane et WANIA, Annett (2007) Qualité de vie : la végétation, un élément d’aménagement raisonné. Dans Marius Thériault et François Des Rosiers (dir.) Information géographique et dynamiques urbaines Paris, Hermes Science et Lavoisier, p. 153-172.Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar
- WHITFORD, V., ENNOS, A. R. et HANDLEY, J. F. (2001) “City form and natural process” – Indicators for the ecological performance of urban areas and their application to Merseyside, UK. Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 57, p. 91-103.10.1016/S0169-2046(01)00192-X Google Scholar Search this bibliographic reference on Google Scholar