Abstracts
Résumé
Dans un climat de conflits civils récurrents, le Kenya a vu s’accroître la violence locale et les razzias entre les communautés de pasteurs le long de son aride frontière nord. La violence transgresse les frontières et affecte les identités, qu’il s’agisse de personnes, de communautés ou de nations. Ce jeu de frontières, d’identités et de valeurs est illustré avec le compte rendu d’une attaque que les Turkana ont perpétrée en 1996 contre les Samburu et les Ariaal-Rendille à El Barta. Cette plaine d’El Barta, dont le toponyme signifie « le point de vue », fournit un « point de vue » sur la violence, sa nature, sa phénoménologie et ses liens avec l’État. Comme les forces de sécurité sont moins bien armées que certains groupes locaux et qu’elles sont compromises dans les conflits en cours, les communautés s’organisent par leurs propres moyens pour établir elles-mêmes l’équilibre de la terreur, générant ainsi un cycle de conflits.
Mots clés:
- Galaty,
- Afrique de l’Est,
- pasteurs nomades,
- conflit,
- guerre,
- violence,
- frontières,
- identité
Abstract
In the shadow of other civil conflicts, local violence and raiding has increased between pastoral communities along and across Kenya’s arid northern frontiers. Between persons, communities, or nations, violence transgresses boundaries and threatens identities contained. The interplay of boundaries, identities and values is illustrated with an account of the 1996 attack by the Turkana on Samburu and Ariaal Rendille at El Barta. Launched against plains locally called “The View”, this episode provides us a “view on violence”, its nature, phenomenology, and links to the state. With security forces intimidated by local weapons and implicated in local violence, communities are arming themselves to establish their own balance of terror, escalating local cycles of conflict.
Key words:
- Galaty,
- East Africa,
- pastoralists,
- conflict,
- warfare,
- violence,
- borderlands,
- identity
Appendices
Références
- Barber J., 1968, Imperial Frontier. Nairobi, East African Publishing House.
- Bollig M., 1990, « Ethnic Conflicts in North-West Kenya : Pokot-Turkana Raiding 1969-1984 », Zeitschrift f→r Ethnologie, 115 : 73-90.
- —, 1990b, « An Outline of Precolonial Eastern Pokot History », Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere, 23 : 73-91.
- Douglas M., 1966, Purity and Danger : An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. Londres, Routledge et Kegan Paul.
- Durkheim É., 1952, Suicide. Londres, Routledge et Kegan Paul.
- Falkenstein M., 1996, « Concepts of Ethnicity and Inter-ethnic Migration among the Ariaal of Kenya », Zeitschrift f→r Ethnologie, 120 : 201-225.
- Fratkin E., 1998, Ariaal Pastoralists of Kenya : Surviving Drought and Development in Africa’s Arid Lands. Boston, Allyn and Bacon.
- Galaty J., 1991, « Pastoral Orbits and Deadly Jousts : Factors in the Maasai Expansion » : 171-198, in J. Galaty et P. Bonte (dir.), Herders, Warriors and Traders : Pastoralists in Africa. Boulder, Westview Press.
- —, 1993, « Maasai Expansion and the New East African Pastoralism » : 61-86, in T. Spear et R. Waller (dir.), Being Maasai : Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa. Londres, Nairobi et Athens, James Curry, EAEP et Ohio University Press.
- —, 1998, Regarding Frontier Violence : Linked Arenas of Conflict along the Borderlands of Northern Kenya. Manuscrit présenté dans la Série de séminaires sur la migration forcée, Refugees Studies Programme, Queen Elizabeth House, Oxford University, 25 Novembre.
- —, 1999, « Les frontières pastorales en Afrique de l’Est » : 241-261, in A. Bourgeot (dir.), Horizons nomades en afrique sahélienne : Sociétés, développement et démocratie. Paris, Karthala.
- Godana B. A., 1995, Individualisation of Land Tenure in an Area of Nomadic Pastoralism : The Case of Marsabit District of Kenya. Manuscrit. Kenya Team, Nairobi, The ALARM Network in Eastern Africa for Arid Lands and Resource Management.
- Gulliver P., 1958, The Family Herds. Londres, Routledge et Kegan Paul.
- Hjort A., 1981, « Ethnic Transformation, Dependency and Change : The Il-Gira Samburu of Northern Kenya » : 49-66, in J. Galaty et P. Salzman (dir.), Change and Development in Nomadic and Pastoral Societies. Leyde, Brill Publishers.
- Keegan J., 1993, A History of Warfare. New York, Hutchinson.
- Keeley L., 1996, War before Civilization. New York et Oxford, Oxford University Press.
- Lamphear J., 1988, « The People of the Grey Bull : The Origin and Expansion of the Turkana », Journal of African History, 29 : 27-39.
- —, 1991, The Scattering Time : Turkana Responses to the Imposition of Colonial Rule. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
- —, 1994, « The Evolution of Ateker “New Model” Armies : Jie and Turkana » : 63-92, in K. Fukui et J. Markakis (dir.), Ethnicity and Conflict in the Horn of Africa. Londres et Athens, James Currey et Ohio University Press.
- —, 1998, « Brothers in Arms : Military Aspects of East African Age-Class Systems in Historical Perspective » : 79-97, in E. Kurimoto et S. Simonse (dir.), Conflict, Age and Power in North East Africa : Age Systems in Transition. Londres et Athens, James Currey et Ohio University Press.
- Lincoln B., 1991, Death, War, and Sacrifice : Studies in Ideology and Practice. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
- Mamdani M., 1996, Citizen and Subject : Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Londres et Kampala, James Currey et Fountain Publishers.
- McCabe J. T., 1990, « Success and Failure : The Breakdown of Traditional Drought Coping Institutions among the Pastoral Turkana of Kenya », Journal of Asian and African Studies, 25 : 146-160.
- Mol F., 1996, Maasai : Language and Culture Dictionary. Lemek, Maasai Centre.
- Muhereza F., 1997, Cross-Border Grazing and the Challenges for Development in the Dryland Areas of Eastern Africa : The Case of Karamoja. Manuscrit présenté à la Conférence internationale Economic Integration and Transboundary Resources, Addis-Ababa, 8-11 Septembre.
- —, 1999, « The State, Resource Use Conflicts, and Initiatives for Peace in Karamoja, Uganda » : 43-46, in J. Galaty (dir.), « Uprooted : Dispossession in Africa », numéro spécial, Cultural Survival Quarterly, 22, 4, hiver.
- O’Leary M., 1985, « The Economics of Pastoralism in Northern Kenya : the Rendille and the Gabra », Rapport technique no F-3, Nairobi, UNESCO, Integrated Project in Arid Lands.
- Roth E., Rendille Pastoralists of Northern Kenya : Demography, Ecology and Adaptation. New York, Aldine de Gruyter.
- Schlee G., 1989, Identities on the Move : Clanship and Pastoralism in Northern Kenya. Manchester, Manchester University Press.
- Sobania N., 1979, « Background History of the Mt. Kulal Region of Kenya », rapport technique IPAL no A-2, UNEP, Nairobi, MAB Integrated Project in Arid Lands.
- —, 1991, « Feasts, Famines and Friends : Nineteenth Century Exchange and Ethnicity in the Eastern Lake Turkana Region” », in J. Galaty et P. Bonte (dir), Herders, Warriors and Traders : Pastoralism in Africa. Boulder, Westview Press.
- Spencer P., 1965, The Samburu : A Study of Gerontocracy in a Nomadic Tribe. Berkeley et Los Angeles, University of California Press.
- —, 1973, Nomads in Alliance : Symbiosis and Growth among the Rendille and Samburu of Kenya. Londres, Oxford University Press.
- —, 1998, « Age Systems and Modes of Predatory Expansion » : 168-185, in E. Kurimoto et S. Simonse (dir.), Conflict, Age and Power in North East Africa : Age Systems in Transition. Londres et Athens, James Currey et Ohio University Press.
- Torry W., 1978, « Gabra Age Organisation and Ecology » : 183-206, in P. T. W. Baxter et U. Almagor (dir.), Age, Generation and Time. Londres, Hurst and Company.
- Turney-High H., 1949, Primitive War : Its Practice and Concepts. Columbia, University of South Carolina Press.
- Von Höhnel L., 1968 [1894], Discovery of Lake Rudolph and Stefanie : A Narrative of Count Samuel Teleki’s Exploring and Hunting Expedition in Eastern Equatorial Africa in 1887 and 1888. Londres, Cass and Co., Ltd.
- Wargute P. W., 1995, « Land Use and Land Tenure in Marsabit Mountain Division ». Manuscrit, Kenya Team, Nairobi, The ALARM Network in Eastern Africa for Arid Lands and Resource Management.
- Wilson T. et H. Donnan, 1998, « Nation, State and Identity at International Borders » : 1-30, in T. Wilson et H. Donnan (dir.), Border Identities : Nation and State at International Frontiers. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.